Sir Isaac Newton (25th Dec. 1642 - 20th Mar. 1727)

Sir Isaac Newton Inventions

World famous scientist Sir Isaac Newton was born at woolsthorpe Manor in Lincolnshire, England, on Christmas day in 1642. As a baby Isaac was a weakling. Having lost his father before his birth, he was born prematurely. The widowed mother lost all hope of the baby’s survival. She never had the faintest idea that this baby would one day not only become one of the world’s greatest scientists, but also live long. When Newton was two years old, his mother remarried. He was then shifted to his grandmother’s house and she raised him. This young boy engaged himself in some activity or other. He made a sundial in stone. Besides, he made a watch that ran on water and a model of a windmill. The sun clock he made is on display at London’s Royal Museum. He also loved reading. 

When he was 14 years old, his mother was once again widowed. He started living with his mother now, and started helping her at their farm. Soon his mother realized that as he approached adulthood his interest in farming was waning. At home he would daydream. He began making models using wood. Finally, his mother agreed to send him to college. Isaac was thrilled. At the age of 18, Newton joined the famous Trinity College at Cambridge. After four years, in 1665, he gained his graduate degree in mathematics from Cambridge University. In college his mathematics professor Isaac Barrow recognized his potential and started encouraging and guiding him and later, became his friend.

Scientist Sir Isaac Newton

At that time the plague epidemic raged all over England. About ten per cent of the country’s population died of this epidemic. Schools and colleges were closed. Cambridge University too was closed. Newton was back at his mother’s farm. Till the time the university reopened after a year and half, Newton stayed with his mother. The time he spent here was the most productive period of his life. His greatest discoveries were made during this time (1665-66) and it is also known as miraculous year in Newton’s life. He laid the foundations of the calculus and the laws of motion. He also examined the elements of circular motion and applied his analysis to the moon and other planets. Seeing a falling apple gave him insight into the law of universal gravitation. The seeds of his famous work on optics were also laid then. He later elaborated these and was recognized as the world’s greatest discoveries of those times.

In 1667, when the university reopened, Newton was appointed lecturer. He made quick progress and in 1669, at the age of 26, he was appointed Lucasian Professor of mathematics in place of Professor Isaac Barrow.

Sir Isaac Newton

For long Newton was involved in the research on light. Newton’s first work at Trinity College was in optics. While at home, Newton had conducted many experiments in his darkened room with a glass prism. When he let in a chink of daylight between the curtains or a ray of white light passed through a prism, it was refracted.

But different parts of the beam were refracted in different amounts, and the beam emerged split into several colors. The colors were same and in the same order, as they appeared in the rainbow : red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet. Newton came to the conclusion that white light could be split up by the prism into a spectrum of merging colors in the sequence red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet, and these colors, when recombined by the prism, formed white light. Newton called it a crucial experiment or Experiment crucis. 

He also designed and constructed the reflecting telescope. This telescope had an image that was not formed by a lens, but by a concave mirror. James Gregory had proposed such use of a concave mirror earlier, but Newton was the first to make such an instrument. The telescope aroused more interest than his lectures because here was something that could be seen, handled and tested. The Royal Society, heard tales of this ‘Wondrous Instrument’ and in 1671, it caused such a sensation that it was demonstrated to King Charles II, on special request. The small telescope, which performed so well, aroused great interest at the Royal Society. As a result, Newton was elected a member of the Royal society, to which he donated the reflecting telescope. The diameter of the mirror was one inch. One such reflecting telescope is installed at the California Institute of Technology’s Mount Palomar Observatory. Its diameter is about 515 cm.

Sir Isaac Newton's Laws

His initial research papers focused on light. Many scholars opposed these vehemently, though some praised it. He had replied to Christiaan Huygens and Robert Hookes criticisms. By then a popular figure, Newton, who was psychologically incapable of accepting criticism, was so upset that he swore not to publish any scientific work. Now he quietly worked to develop the theoretical principles underlying his experimental works. Besides, he represented the university in parliament.

In 1664, the famous astronomer Edmund Halley visited Newton. He had come to discuss Kepler’s laws on the motion o planets. Halley came to realize that Newton had laid down the basic laws of gravitation through his calculations and conclusions. At Halley’s urging, Newton reproduced the proofs and expanded then into a paper. Halley at once recognized the importance of what Newton had done and also, realized that he was dealing with a genius. He persuaded Newton to publish his works and results. He volunteered to bear all the production cost. 

Sir Newton's discoveries on force

Halley encouraged Newton to write a full treatise of his new physics and its application to astronomy. In 1687, Newton finally published the ‘Philosohiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica’ ( The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy) in three volumes in Latin, which caused a sensation. Newton became internationally famous. Though his concept of force was not generally accepted, leading scientists of those days soon recognized him as a worthy successor of Galileo and Descartes. The Principia is still considered as the greatest scientific book ever written. His third law of motion-that action and reaction are equal and opposite has done wonders. Present day rockets and jet planes run on this principle.

In 1698, Newton was appointed as the Master of the Mint after working as the Warden of the Mint from 1696. He held this prestigious position and made many important changes to prevent manufacturing of counterfeit coins. In 1701, he resigned his fellowship and professorship at the Trinity College.

In 1703, Newton was elected president of the Royal Society and remained on this post till his death. In 1705, Queen Anne honored him by conferring on him the title of ‘Sir’. He died on March 20, 1727 at the ripe old age of 85. This great scientist was laid to rest with other eminent personalities at Westminster Abbey.

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Scientist Galileo Galilei (15th Feb. 1564 – 6th Jan. 1642)

Scientist Galileo Galilei 

Eminent astronomer, physicist and seeker of truth – Galileo Galilei was born on February 15, 1564, in Pisa, a town in Italy. His father Vincenjio Galilei was a wool trader. Galileo belonged to a upper-class family, but their economic condition was not so good. He was the eldest in the family of seven brothers and sisters. His father studied music and was a music lover. Galileo inherited this trait. Since childhood he played the flute very well and was a good hand at drawing. He was an intelligent child, who designed various toys. This artistic streak made him popular among the local folk.

At that time Pisa town was part of the Tusque state of Italy. It was the center of art and knowledge. Galileo’s childhood was spent in this artistic and literary environment. It is a coincidence that this great scientist and England’s famous playwright William Shakespeare were born in the same year. At a young age Galileo was sent to the local school to study under the priests. Actually, he learnt more from his father than at his school. In 1581, at the age of 17, his father admitted him to the Pisa University to study medicine. But his mind was set on mathematics. Meanwhile, coming I contact with a scholar mathematician, his interest in mathematics became strong. Gradually, he gained mastery over mathematics.

 

Super Scientist Galileo Galilei Photo

Meanwhile, at the age of 20, he made his first discovery public. At a cathedral in Pisa, he noticed a hanging chandelier from the ceiling swinging in the breeze. He counted his pulse and measured the time taken for one oscillation of the chandelier and found that there was regularity in its swinging. At the end of his study he concluded that if we swing pendulums of equal lengths at any speed, the time for one swing remains the same. He also demonstrated practical application of his discovery of the pendulum. Patients undergoing treatment can measure their pulse with a pendulum. He also visualized a watch based on a pendulum, but did not make it. Sometime later Christiaan Huygens made a clock using a pendulum. It showed the minutes and seconds. Thus, his pendulum also served a practical purpose.

Super Scientist Galileo Galilei

In 1585, he went through a financial crisis. This resulted in his abandoning midway his university education through he continued with his self-study. Now, his interest centered on mathematics. On the basis of his study, he openly criticized Aristotle’s laws of motion. His deep study and fascination for mathematics came to the knowledge of the local grand Duke. The Duke appointed Galileo as professor of mathematics at Pisa University. This did not bode well with the other professors of that time who were jealous of the appointment of this 25 year old new professor. Moreover, Galileo did not even possess any university degree. He also raised questions on laws propounded by Aristotle. His courage to question the truth of Aristotle’s laws irked the senior professors who openly displayed it.

On seeing a falling stone and leaf, Aristotle had concluded that the lighter object would take more time to cover equal distance to the ground. Galileo reasoned that it was due to the obstruction caused by air. Galileo took two stones of different weights and dropped them from Pisa’s famous Leaning Tower. Though both stones varied in weight they fell on the ground at the same time. Galileo proved his point and questioned Aristotle’s hypothesis. Though the senior professors were present during the experiment, they were reluctant to accept it.

It was a time when stop clocks were not available to measure time accurately. Depending on the height of Pisa Tower any object dropped from the top would take not more than three seconds to touch the ground. He found out another way to measure time. He took a 22 feet (approx 670 cm) long piece of teak-wood. After making a deep groove in the wood, it was bent slightly. This groove was chiseled to make it smooth and friction less, so that the ball placed in the groove could slowly move towards the ground. To measure time he had placed a pierced bucket with water falling drop by drop. He collected this water and measured time. To find out the effect of gravity, he performed this experiment and made some unique observations. He derived his laws of motion through this experiment. He derived his laws of motion through this experiment. He proved the mathematical laws experimentally. He further derived new laws of motion from it which were different from the established laws.

The orthodox professors and religious leaders of that time did not accept his findings. They believed in the saying ‘old is gold’. The few who opposed him made efforts to relieve him from Pisa University. Finally, fed up with the opposition, he resigned from his post in 1592. For someone who spoke the truth and unfaltering in his belief, Galileo had to face a few tough days. With discontinuation of his income he faced a crisis. In fact, his intellectual prowess made many people jealous of him and some also developed an inferiority complex. Others were not ready for change. Thus, Galileo got isolated. After resigning from Pisa, he went to his father’s house in Florence. But, his father met an untimely death. As the eldest son, the responsibility of seven brothers and sisters fell on him. Despite this he did not waver from his charted path.

Meanwhile, he got a job as professor of mathematics at Padua University in Venice. His salary was also good. Gradually his difficulties ceased. He stayed there for 18 years and it was a period of relative prosperity and fame. Students from all over the world came to study under him. The future German emperor too, came to study here. He got interested in Astronomy after coming to Venice. In 1609, he got the news that some scientist in Holland had designed a telescope with the help of a lens. He, too, designed his own telescope. The news of his telescope spread far and wide and people started flocking to see it. On the request of the royalty of Venice, he agreed to publicly display his telescope.

Scientist Galileo Galilei

For observing the sky with the telescope, he placed his telescope on the dome of the town’s tallest church, and observed the ships plying in the far sea. According to Galileo, and object which was 50 miles away could be seen just five miles away through the telescope. The Prince of Venice requested Galileo for a telescope for the army and the navy. He accepted the offer and gained respect and an increase in salary. Galileo observed the sky with his telescope. He first observed the moon and became the first human being to do so. Viewing the moon he came to realize that the moon was not flat, but comprised of mountains and valleys. He also measured the height of mountains on the moon. He noted that the planets, like the stars, did not shine on their own but depended on some outside source for light.

He also took note of the fact that stars are sources of light, which emit light rays in all directions. He observed the sky and noted that the galaxy is clusters of stars. He focused his telescope on Jupiter and first found out its four moons. He also found out that the earth reflects the Sun’s light. Someone who views the earth from the moon will find same characteristics as in the moon when one views it from the earth. He opposed the traditional belief and announced that earth was not the centre of the universe. Scholars and religious leaders were furious and rained insults at him. Thus, all his new findings gave him fame as well as foes.

Galileo had a well-paid, permanent job in Venice. But his heart cried out for Florence, his native land. He began efforts to return to Florence. He thought of penning down his discoveries. His efforts bore fruit when the Grand Duke appointed him as the duke’s mathematical advisor. In 1611, he left Venice for Florence. His troubles began soon after he set foot here. Florence was the seat of the Pope’s decree. Galileo backed his discoveries with Copernicus theories. When Galileo visited the Pope in Rome, he was deceived into accepting the allegiance. He was banned from spreading Copernicus beliefs opposing religious order among the people.

Galileo Galilei's Invention

Galileo was now a broken man. In 1618 he had proposed a theory on the flood and abb-tides of the seas. This theory was also on the lines of Copernicus beliefs. It was believed then that the ebb and flood tide occurred according to the wishes of the Almighty. Galileo asked for permission to publish a book based on science. After a long delay he was granted permission. When the book was published and reached the Pope, he declared it against religion and accused Galileo of getting it printed through illegal means. The Book was banned. He was charged with fraud. Suddenly, everything seemed to go against him.

In 1634, at the age of 70 Galileo appeared in court. He was forced to accept the verdict and he stated, “I am now giving up my untruthful theories.” He also said that, “from now onward I will not spread these false theories.”. The experts in the court declared “ Earth is the center of the universe not the Sun.” He was sentenced to solitary confinement for the rest of his life. He spent the last eight years of his life in seclusion. Prior Permission was needed for any person to meet him. Galileo was worn down both mentally and physically. Finally, on January 6, 1642, this great thinker and researcher breathed his last, ending his suffering.    

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Prof U R Rao (The great Scientist of India)

Prof. U. R. Rao 

Considered one of the leading space scientists in the world, Dr U R Rao was born on March 10, 1932, in Admar village in the south Canara district in Karnataka state. His father’s name was Lakshminarayan Rao and his mother’s name was Krishnavalli. His full name was Udupi Ramchandra Rao. He completed his school and college education from a place near his village. Very fond of reading during his school and college days, he was among the top rankers in class. He passed BSc with a first class in physics and joined the Varanasi (Benaras) Hindu University for his post-graduation. In 1953, he passed MSc with a first class. The same year he went to Ahmadabad and joined the Physical Research Laboratory (PRL) for his PhD and began research on cosmic rays under the guidance of Dr. Vikram Sarabhai. In 1960, he received PhD. for further studies, in 1961, he received post-doctoral fellowship from the Massachusetts institute of Technology, Boston. There he carried our further research on cosmic rays and solar winds. After two years of research here, he worked as assistant professor at South West Center for advance Studies in Texas University, from 1963 to 1966.

In 1966, he returned to India and once again joined PRL as Fellow and continued with his research. Thus, began his second phase of life. Here he began research studies on X-rays and gamma rays in cosmic rays. These experiments involved use of balloons, rockets and satellites, which were used as payloads. Meanwhile, Rao served as associate professor at PRL from 1968 to 1970. In 1970, he was promoted as professor. He worked on that post for two years. In 1972, he was appointed as director of ISRO Satellite Centre in Bangalore. He successfully discharged his duties here till 1984. During his researches at PRL, he and his colleagues had made important contributions towards understanding the interplanetary medium. His research on solar winds has increased our understanding of the subject. The data interpretation of American Satellites pioneer I and Pioneer II became easy due to his researches. His understanding of the solar winds by unraveling the American satellite Mariner II observations provided a new insight to the world of science. He was the first to establish the relationship between geomagnetic storms and solar winds with the help of observations made on earth. For his highly accurate analysis of the Pioneer 6,7,8, and 9 observations, he was awarded the ‘Group achievement Award, by National Aeronautics & Space administration (NASA) in 1973.

Prof. U R Rao Photo

His third phase of life started with his appointment as director of ISRO Satellite Centre at Bangalore. After his return from America, his second phase was spent at PRL, where he received guidance from Dr. Vikram Sarabhai whenever he needed. At Banglore, he started development of the new institute and after Dr. Sarabhai’s death, fully concentrated on enriching the space department and reinforcing the satellite technology. This resulted in the design and construction on India’s Aryabhatt satellite in 1975, under his guidance. This was successfully launched from the Russian Cosmodrome and was well in control thereafter. Then the design, development and successful orbit of Bhaskar I and II were carried out in 1979 and 1981. Under Rao’s leadership, the first experimental geostationary satellite ‘Apple’ was put into orbit in June, 1981. This gave a boost to the development of this new technology in the country. Thereafter, the Indian Remote Sending (IRS) satellites and the INSAT satellites for broadcasting and meteorological purposes were designed, developed and successfully sent into orbit. The success achieved in putting them in appropriate orbit has increased the faith in Indian scientists and technicians. All this happened under Prof. Rao’s able leadership.

On October 2, 1984 Prof Rao was appointed chairman of ISRO and secretary of Space Commissions, Government of India. He was entrusted the entire responsibility of the country’s space programme. Taking forward the programme by guiding the scientists and engineers, he performed his duties successfully till 1994. Under his leadership the country’s space programs took a giant leap and made various achievements. During his tenure, satellite launch vehicles were produced. This achievement was recognized. Launch vehicles like the ASLV, which could launch a satellite with a payload of 150 Kg in lower orbit and PSLV, which could launch a satellite with a payload of 1000 kg in polar orbit were prepared. Besides, special cryogenic engines are acquired to produce launch vehicles for GSLV geostationary satellites. These satellite launch vehicles can put satellites with 2.5 ton payload into orbit.

Prof Rao has played an important role in enhancing India’s name in the world of space science. This is the reason why many institutes, universities and many governments in the country and abroad have lauded his efforts. In 1975, the Russian Science Academy, while praising his efforts for the successful launch of Aryabhatt satellite, honoured him with the Russian ‘Medal of Honour’. The same year, he was awarded the ‘Dr. Vikram Sarabhai Research Award’ instituted by the Hariom Ashrama, for his contribution to space physics. He was also awarded the ‘Dr. Shantiswaroop Bhatnagar Prize’ for his contribution to engineering science. The Karnataka government conferred on him the ‘State Award’. In 1980, the Indian Engineering Institute gave him the ‘National Design Award’ and for his contribution to electronics science and technology, he was given the year’s ‘Vasvik Research Award’. For his services to the country, the President conferred on him the Padma Bhushan.

Prof Udupi Ramchandra Rao 

In 1987, the National Science Academy awarded Rao the ‘P C Mahalanobis Medal’. In 1991, the Russian Space Flight Federation honoured him with the ‘Yuri Gagarin Medal’. In 1992, for his cooperation in the journey of space, the international community ( of which he is the Vice-president) awarded him the ‘Allen D’mil Memorial Award’. In 1995, India’s scientific community honoured him with the ‘Aryabhatt Award’. The same year he was given the Bhasin Award. Kolkata (Calcutta) University along with Mysore University, as well as other universities in the country and abroad have conferred on him honorary doctorate degrees. The National Science Academy, Institute of Electronics and Telecommunications, National Engineering Academy, and Indian Astronautical Society have honoured him with a Fellowship and gave him honorary membership. He is the president of the Indian Rocket Society. He was honoured as visiting scientist to Texas University and other universities. In 1996, he was presented the ‘Dr. Vikram Sarabhai International Award’.

Today, he works as chairman of the PRL governing body. Besides, he is associated with various institutions. He has to his credit, more than 150 research papers. He has also written a book on the Aryabhatt project with his colleague Dr. Kasturirangan. It describes in detail about the project, its results and also analysis of its images. In 1996, he had detailed discussions with the then Prime Minister Narasimha Rao, on how science and technology would be useful in increasing foodgrain production, economic development and health of the country, and wrote a book in this connection. Thus, he has served the country in various fields. We pray to the almighty to grant him good health and long life, so that he continues to guide the country in space research.

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Professor K R Ramanathan (28 Feb. 1893 - 31 Dec. 1984 )

Prof. K R. Ramanathan

Professor K R Ramanathan, a scientist with broad outlook was born on February 28, 1893 in kalpathi village in Palghat district of Kerala. His full name was Kalpathi Ramkrishnan Ramanathan. His mother’s name was Subbhalakshmi. His father was a scholar in Sanskrit and the Vedas, besides having deep knowledge of astronomy.

When Ramanathan was 13 years old, his mother died. He then had to bear the responsibility of his four younger sisters and almost blind grandmother. He completed his primary and secondary education in his village. He was an intelligent boy, who maintained his first rank throughout his education. He then joined Victoria College at Palghat for his intermediate studies. Later, he joined the Presidency College in Chennai (Madras) to complete his graduation in physics, in 1914 and post-graduation in 1917.

Prof Stevenson, his examiner at the MA practical examination, was so impressed by Ramanathan’s viva voce replies that after he cleared the examination, Stevenson got him a job as demonstrator at the physics department of the Maharaja College in Thiruvananthapuram (Trivandrum). He worked for seven years in this college. There was a small office of the state meteorological department in the college premises. He took up the responsibility of observation for the meteorological department. This fuelled his interest in meteorology and also gave him some experience. During this time he had trekked the Nilgiri Mountains and weather observations were noted at difference heights up to 1,800 meters. Moreover, he had gathered reports of rainfall in different parts of Thiruvananthapuram and written a research paper on it. In 1919, this research paper was published in one magazine.

Prof C V Raman’s popularity and work impressed Ramanathan. They were in touch through correspondence. Raman invited Ramanathan to Kolkata (Calcutta) to do research under his guidance. Meanwhile, Ramanathan received a one year scholarship from Chennai University to conduct research. He took leave from Thiruvananthapuram and headed straight for Kolkata to do research with Raman. He became the first research student of Raman. When light rays hit minute particles they get scattered in all directions. This process is known as ‘Scattering of Light’. Lord Rayleigh had then proposed that if these minute particles are small compared to the wavelength of light, then the scattering of light with the smallest wavelength is prominent. The atoms in the atmosphere are very small compared to the wavelength of light. Therefore, during the day, the Sun’s visible blue-colored light with the smallest wavelength scatters the most. This is the reason why blue-colored light can be visible prominently from all directions. Therefore the sky appears blue in colour.

At sunrise and sunset, the sunrays travel longer distance through the atmosphere to reach the earth. Due to scattering, except the light with the maximum wavelength the rest is dispersed. Therefore, light with the maximum wavelength meaning red light reaches us. So the light over the horizon during the morning and evening appears red or orange. In space or in vacuum there is no atmosphere; hence, scattering of sunlight takes place. Therefore, the sky appears black when viewed from space. Raman was conducting research on scattering of light in Kolkata at that time. Ramanathan too joined in this research. During this study they witnessed a unique new phenomenon termed as ‘feeble fluorescence’. However, neither Raman nor he could come to any plausible conclusion. Later, this event led Raman to the world famous Raman effect. Thus, the discoverer of the Raman’s effect, C V Raman considered Ramanathan as his first lieutenant. Thereafter, Raman’s second lieutenant Dr.  K S Krishnan took forward this work in Kolkata.

The discovery of Raman Effect was announced on February 28, 1928, in Kolkata. Prof Ramanathan’s birthday also falls on the same day. The Government of India has declared February 28 as National Science Day.

During his one-year stay in Kolkata, Ramanathan published about 10 scientific research papers in the world’s leading research magazines. For his thesis based on these published papers he was awarded the degree of Doctor of Science by Chennai University. Chennai University had awarded the first Dsc degree to Ramanathan. His one-year research scholarship was also over. To fulfil his household responsibilities it was necessary for him to take up a good job. In the meantime, he got an invitation from Myanmar’s (Burma’s) Rangoon University to join as assistant lecturer in physics. After seeking advice of Raman, Ramanathan accepted the job and left for Rangoon with his wife Parvati in 1922. To remain in touch with research, Ramanathan would rush to Kolkata at every conceivable opportunity. He stayed in Rangoon, for two years. Meanwhile, he was invited by the Indian Meteorological Department to join as a first grade scientist. After consulting Prof C V Raman, he resigned from Rangoon University and joined the Meteorological Department at its head office in Shimla. Till retirement he was with this department. He worked at various places during his tenure. In the meantime, he was given the main responsibility of setting up the geomagnetic laboratory at Colaba, Mumbai (Bombay) and at Alibaug. From Shimala, he came down to Mumbai. He was then transferred to Agra. Here, using rubber balloons he recorded the high atmospheric temperature, humidity, air pressure and made a detailed study. In 1928, the head office of the Meteorological Deparment was shifted to Pune (Poona) from Shimala. Ramanathan was then transferred to Pune and given additional responsibilities, which he fulfilled efficiently.

During World War II, the Japanese army had reached Myanmar. At that time it was necessary to predict the exact weather conditions in the higher atmosphere for the safe flying of planes in Assam. Ramanathan was appointed as superintending Weather Scientist and assigned the entire responsibility, which he fulfilled effectively. For his excellent services during the war, the British government honored him with the title Diwan Bahadur. He never made use of this title. His contribution in the field of meteorology was noteworthy. His research of the ozone layer during his tenure in the department had brought him international fame. He had reached the position of Director-General in the Meteorological Department. He retired in February 1948. At the age of 55.

Before retirement he had come in contact with Dr. Vikram Sarabhai. Sarabhai wanted to set up a modern laboratory in Ahmadabad. He invited the mature and experienced scientist Dr. Ramanathan to come to Ahmadabad after retirement and join the laboratory that was to be set up shortly as its director. Dr Ramanathan accepted the offer.

On March 1, 1948, two days after his retirement, Dr. Ramanathan came down to Ahmadabad and took charge as Director of the Physical Research Laboratory (PRL). PRL was established in November, 1947. Initially, the work began at Vikaram Sarabhai’s bungalow – ‘Retreat’ in the Shahibaug area. In a few months the work was shifted to a few rooms in the M G Science Institute in the University area. In February, 1952, Raman laid the foundation of the new PRL building opposite, Ahmadabad Textile Industries Research Association (ATIRA). In April, 1954, India’s first Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru formally inaugurated the new building. Gradually, the institute progressed. In 1966, Ramanathan relinquished the Director’s post and continued his services as Professor Emeritus. He continued to guide in research and administration till his last days.

After joining PRL as Director, in 1948 he took a trip to Europe for the first time and visited the various laboratories there. He also attended the Eighth General meeting of the International Geology and Geophysics Society at Norway (Oslo). There he presented his research paper on ozone layer. At this conference he was elected Vice-president of the International Meteorological Society. Thereafter, he had to go often abroad to attend seminars, workshops and meetings. He was elected the president at the international Conference of the World Meteorological Society held at Belgium in 1951. Again in 1954 at its conference in Rome, Italy, he was elected President for three years.

The 18 month period from July 1957 to December 1958 was celebrated as the International Geophysical Year (IGY). Dr. Ramanathan played an important role in this event. He was appointed Chairman of the Indian Committee. The headquarters of this society were located at PRL. In 1960, an honorary fellowship was awarded by Royal Meteorological Society, England to Ramanathan. He was the first Indian to get this honour. In 1961, the World Weather Organization honoured Ramanathan with the institute’s medal. From 1961-67, he was appointed Chairman of the International Ozone Commission. Four years after he came and settled in Ahmadabad, his wife Parvatiamma died. He regained his composure even during this difficult time. In 1966, the directorship was given to Sarabhai. Whenever it was necessary, Ramanathan would guide and advise him. Meanwhile, with the unexpected death of Dr. Homi Bhabha, Chairman of India’s Atomic Energy Commission in a plane accident, The commission’s charge was already the Chairman of the Space Research Organisation, besides being the Director of PRL. He had to shoulder the responsibilities of three institutions. During such moments, Ramanathan calmly guided him. The sudden death of Sarabhai on December 30, 1971, deeply shocked Ramanathan. Yet again, he patiently carried on, showing no signs of breakdown.

Ramanathan always showed courage during difficult times. Honours and awards never flattered him. He remained stoic and till the end continued to work. The author of this article has had some memorable experiences with him. In the initial years of PRL (1950-54), under his guidance, the author worked as a research scholar and obtained his post-graduate degree. Again in the golden era of PRL, the author joined as a research scientist and got the opportunity to do research with Ramanathan. During this time he got many opportunities to know him from close quarters. Prof Ramanathan was a father figure to his students. After his retirement, Ramanathan came and settled in Ahmadabad. The major part of his life, more than 35 years were spent here. His contribution to Gujarat and especially Ahmadabad, in the field of education and physics in particular, is invaluable.

The Government of India honoured Reamanathan with the padam Bhushan in 1965 and the Padma Vibhushan in 1976. In 1977, the National Science Academy awarded him the Aryabhatt Medal. He had also chaired the Indian Science Academy’s prestigious Raman Chair. In 1985, at the ripe old age of 92, he died after a brief illness. Till his last breath he had taken keen interest in scientific activities. To keep alive his memory, in the centenary year of the late Prof Ramanathan, the newly built air-conditioned auditorium at PRL was named as the ‘K R Ramanathan Auditorium’. Moreover, with an individual contribution by his son Dr. Krishna Ramanathan and financial assistance from PRL, every year a leading scientist is invited to deliver the Prof Ramanathan Memorial Lecture.

Michael Faraday (22 September 1791 – 25 August 1867)

Michael Faraday (22 September 1791 – 25 August 1867) was a scientist, chemist, physicist and philosopher who greatly contributed to the fields of electromagnetism and electrochemistry. His main discoveries include that of the Magnetic Field, Induction, Diamagnetism and Electrolysis.

Michael Farady was born at Newington, Surrey, now a part of South London on September 22, 1791. His father was a blacksmith who has migrated in search of work form the north of England in 1791. Due to ill health he faced lot of difficulties at work. His mother was a country woman of great calm and wisdom who supported her son emotionally through a difficult childhood. Born in such a family, he had to make do with the available education of alphabets and arithmetic from the Church Sunday school. Physically too, Michael was weak and skinny. Faraday had three other siblings and all of them could barely be fed as their father was ill and often incapable of doing any work. It is said that Faraday reminisced having lived on one loaf of bread for a week. Belonging to the small Sandemanian sect of the Christian faith, religion provided Faraday spiritual power to survive all adverse situations. This had the single most important effect on him that led him in quest of nature and approach towards life in general.

One kind-hearted distributor of books gave him the job of distributing newspapers and at the age of 13, he employed him at his shop and also taught him book- binding work. Thus, his going to school came to an abrupt end. Finding time out of his working hours, he began reading books available there thus acquiring knowledge. He came across an exhaustive write-up on electricity in the third edition of Encyclopaedia Britannica which opened new vistas for him. This reading brought a great transformation in his life. He was so inspired by it that he went on to purchase necessary items to make a Leyden jar. Using old bottles and lumber, he made this crude electrostatic generator and conducted simple experiments. He also constructed a weak voltaic pile that helped him perform experiments in electrochemistry.



As his interest in science increased, he joined the philosophical society there and began attending lectures, enhancing his knowledge. Around this time Faraday got the opportunity to attend lectures in chemistry by the famous chemist Sir Humphry Davy in the year 1812 at the Royal institution in London. This was the turning point in his life. He was inspired by the lectures. He copiously took down the notes and prepared a bound volume by hand. He presented it to Sir Humphry Davy, along with an application for a job. Alas, there was no opening! He even wrote a letter to the president of the Royal Society, Joseph Banks, requesting for an odd job there. He received no reply from him. However, Davy did not forget and in 1813, when one of his laboratory assistants was dismissed for misbehavior, Faraday began as Davy’s laboratory assistant and learned chemistry under one of the greatest chemists of those times. It is said that Faraday was Davy’s laboratory assistant and learned chemistry under one of the greatest chemists of those times. It is said that Faraday was Davy’s greatest discovery. Finally in 1815, he got promoted as assistant and was given the charge of looking after the laboratory instruments. In 1825, he was promoted as the director of the laboratory. He was now totally engrossed in his scientific pursuits. For several years he experimented the experiments that Sir Davy had performed. In chemistry, he performed electrochemical and metallurgical experiments. He made invaluable contribution in the invention of the famous ‘Davy Safety Lamp’.

In his electrochemical experiments he reached such levels in analysis that he propounded that famous laws of electrolysis named after him. He gave simple and easy to understand principles on the phenomenon of electrolysis. Faraday’s two laws of electrochemistry are:

1) The amount of a substance deposited on each electrode of an electrolytic cell is directly proportional to the quantity of electricity passed through the cell.

2) The quantities of different elements deposited by a given amount of electricity are in the ratio of their chemical equivalent weights. Faraday discovered benzene in 1825.

Further, in 1831, he conducted a series of experiments giving clear picture on magnetism and also produced electricity by speedily changing the magnetic forces. In 1827, he was invited to join as professor of chemistry at the London University College which he modestly turned down. In 1833, he was selected for the Fullerian professorship of Chemistry at the Royal Institute. Meanwhile, he took up another assignment as part time lecturer at the Woolwich based Royal Military Academy. He even advised and directed other institutions during this period. Due to this shortage of time he had to face difficulties in his research activity.

To ensure that he would not have to face financial difficulties and that he would direct all his energies in research, efforts were made to secure pension- financial assistance from the government. A meeting was arranged with the then Prime Minister Lord Melbourne for this purpose. During the meeting the prime minister passed some negative remarks. He went on to say that government grants and assistance were a big fraud or a kind of cheating. This was just enough for Faraday. He immediately rejected the idea of seeking assistance and thus, ended their eventful meeting. Some even believed that Faraday was known famously as ‘Narure’s great refuser’. He refused to take up the University College professorship. He even refused the proposed Knighthood award of the title ‘Sir’ from the government for which his prior permission was sought. Not only this, he was offered the presidency not once, but twice by the Royal Society for which he expressed his inability. He had quite a different view about all these awards and honours. In 1824, he was made the Fellow of the Royal Society. After a lot of deliberation and delays he accepted the same.

Finally in 1835, Lord Melbourne was successful in seeking his pardon for the earlier rebuff and granting him government pension. For Faraday now, financial difficulties were a thing of the past. In the meanwhile, due to ill health his research was interrupted. Once again in 1845, he began his research- experiments. But now his efficiency had gone compared to what it was earlier. Prince Albert allotted a house for him in Hampton Court. He spent the rest of his life there. His research and inventions were unparalleled, wonderful and invaluable. In the electrochemical experiments he had conducted based on electrolysis, he separated certain elements. On its basis, he defined the unit of electricity- the ampere. By one ampere current we mean the amount of electrical current required to obtain 0.001118 gram of silver when silver nitrate is electrolyzed.

On the basis of his experiments on electricity and magnetism, electric motor was invented. This important research of his established him as a great scientist. In 1820, a famous physicist of Denmark, Hans Christian Oersted announced the discovery that the flow of an electric current through a wire produced a magnetic field around it. Andre Marie Ampere showed that the magnetic lines of force were circular around the wire. In October 1831, Faraday gave an affirmative answer to this question. Faraday also gave the laws of electric induction. He explained that creating relative motion in magnetic and electric field, magnetic field can be transformed into electric energy. In fact the electric generator designed by Faraday is the original form of today’s giant size dynamo.

Faraday made a unique contribution in popularizing science by giving a series of lectures from 1826 at the London based Royal Society for children during Christmas. For years he gave lectures to children providing them an insight on various scientific theories. Even today, eminent scientists are invited to give lectures during the Christmas lecture series. Faraday is considered to be the inventor of electric motor and generator. The unit of capacitance, the farad, is named in honour of Faraday. He also made contribution in the field of optics. He observed that the path of plane polarized light is electromagnetic by nature. Faraday introduced the concept of field (now called classical field) to explain his observation in electromagnetic experiments.

Since 1855, Faraday began to lose his mental abilities. He occasionally experimented on gravitation and other forces and conversion thereof. The Royal Society then refused to publish his negative results that he announced causing lot of disappointment to him. Further, Faraday began to sink into senility or a disease caused due to damage to brain cells in old age. Earlier, he had rejected the knighthood though he took up the residence at Hampton Court. He wanted to die as a plain Mr. Faraday. On August 25, 1867, this great scientist left for his heavenly abode and would always be remembered as a bright star shining in the sky forever.

Dr. Jayant Narlikar

The great Indian astrophysicist, Dr Jayant Narlikar was born on July 19, 1938, in a highly educated and cultured family in Kolhapur district of Maharashtra. His father Prof. Vishnu Vasudev Narlikar was the Head of the Department of Mathematics at Benaras Hindu University. Thereafter he was Chairman of the Rajasthan Public Service Commission. Jayant Narlikar had his education in Varanasi. His mother was a graduate in Sanskrit from Mumbai (Bombay) University. Besides, she loved English literature. She was graceful, cultured and educated lady.



Young Narlikar was exceptionally talented and always topped at school and college examinations. Mathematics was his favourite subject. Besides, he enjoyed reading. In 1959, he cleared BSc Honours from Benaras Hindu University. He stood first in the University. His subjects were mathematics and astrophysics. For further studies his father wanted to send him abroad. Before leaving India, he was informed by those who had already been to England, not to be complacent. Life would be tough but having worked hard, he came out with flying colours. The advice he received from his father and particularly, his maternal uncle Dr. Vasantrao Hujurbazar really stood him in good stead.



Besides his parents, Fred Hoyle, his teacher and mentor had a great influence on him. Besides, his extraordinary result at the graduate level also fetched him a scholarship. He was sent to England, where he joined Cambridge University. Here he obtained MSc degree in just two years. Incidentally at that time a world famous teacher of astrophysics was in Cambridge. He was, Frederick Hoyle, better known as Fred Hoyle, Hoyle was professor at Kings College, Cambridge and conducting research on the speed and condition of celestial bodies. Narlikar registered for PhD under Hoyle and began research work. Hoyle accepted him wholeheartedly, In 1963, Jayant Narlikar was awarded PhD by Cambridge University. He stayed in Cambridge from 1957 to 1962.



During his 15 years stay abroad Dr. Narlikar made many important researches. At the age of 22 years he became member of the Royal Astronautical Society. He was also appointed Fellow at Kings College, Cambridge. His father too, was member of this institute. His PhD thesis included research on principles of gravitation, gravitational pull between different celestial bodies, formation of the universe and others. He had also presented another view to the popular Big Bang theory. According to his theory the universe is not expanding but static (still). He had described it as ‘steady state’. This theory shed new light on the subject. With Fred Hoyle, he presented the famous Conformal Theory of Gravity, which became well-known all over the world. Narlikar and Hoyle worked on cosmology, including the steady state theory, theory of gravitation, electrodynamics, etc. They propounded that the force of other powers in space and the universe has an effect on the mass of matter. Besides, it also affects the shape and size of matter. It is generally believed that the gravitational pull depends on the mass of the object. He suggested that the gravitational pull on celestial bodies depends on its density. As the internal density of the object is more, so is the gravitational pull on celestial bodies depends on its density. As the internal density of the object is more, so is the gravitational pull. This is the reason why such heavenly bodies try to devour other heavenly bodies. As the mass of these objects increases it becomes dense. Its density increase so much that such a pinch of mass is equivalent to several tons in weight. In the end it becomes a Black Hole. Such objects do not even allow light to escape from them.



His researches on gravitation of space objects are considered noteworthy. He received awards and medals from many institute in Europe. In 1969, the Union education Minstry invited Dr Narlikar and Hoyle to visit India and deliver lectures. In 1968, Cambridge University honoured him by presenting him the Adam Award. Earlier, three Indian scientists had received this prestigious award: in 1944, Dr. Homi Bhabha; in 1948, Dr S Chandrashekhar; and in 1961, Dr Hujurbazar, This award is given every two years in the memory of Dr J C Adams, astrophysics and natural science. Adams was an outstanding astronomer, who has predicted the existence of planet Neptune in 1846.



Narlikar married Mangala Sadashiv Rajwade in 1966. In 1969, when he returned to India, he was conferred the Padma Bhushan by the Government of India. Mumbai’s Tata Institute of Fundamental Research invited him to join as professor of astrophysics. Narlikar too had decided to offer his services to the country. In 1972, he joined TIFR as professor. Besides research and teaching, he guided doctoral students. Here he continued research on tachyons. Tachyons are particles that move faster than the speed of light. According to Dr Narlikar, Black Holes are bases of tachyons. They absorb light coming from outside and with tremendous pressure contracts the surface of the Black Hole. After coming here Narlikar developed one more activity. To popularize science and especially astronomy among the people he wrote book Akashashi Jadle Nate (Related to the Sky) in his mother tongue Marathi. Besides he also wrote science stories. His books have also been translated into Hindi and Gujarati. He is an accomplished science fiction writer.



In September 1988, the late Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi encouraged him to start astronomy and nuclear physics inter university centre. Through the university Grants Commission and central aid such a centre has been made possible. Narlikar was its first director and worked as Homi Bhabha professor. In 1988, he attended an international conference on astronomy at Baltimore in America. On January 10 1989, the National Science Academy honoured Narlikar with the Venu Bappu Memorial Award for 1988. This award includes Rs. 25000 in cash and a medal. In 1990 he was awarded the Indian Science Academy’s Indira Gandhi Award and in 1996, UNESCO’s ‘Kalinga Award’. Recently, on March 12, 2003, the Yashwantroa Chavan Rashtriya Puraskar – 2002’ was presented to Narlikar.



We pray to the almighty to grant good health and long life to this great Indian scientist, so that he may continue to serve the world of science and the country.

Dr. Jayant Narlikar Photo

Arthur Compton (1892 – 1962)

Arthur Holly Compton was born on September 10, 1892, at Wooster, Ohio, USA. His father Elias Compton was professor of Philosophy at Wooster College, Oxford, in Ohio, and also served as priest in the church there. Arthur, the youngest of three brothers and a sister, was brought up in religious atmosphere at home. His sister Mary married a missionary. They worked and settled in Allahabad, India. Arthur’s eldest brother Karl Compton was a physicist, who had written many papers. Besides, he had done considerable research on photo electricity and the crystal structure. He was appointed president of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Another brother, Wilson Compton, gained reputation as a good economist and able administrator.

Their mother, Otelia was a doting mother and had raised the children with utmost care and attention. She was their guide and toiled for her children. She was aware of her children’s activities and took care to ensure that they did no wrong. The children too reciprocated and were aware of her contribution in their progress. Probably this was the reason that in October 1932, Wooster College of Ohio honoured 74-year old Otelia Compton as the best mother. In presence of her three sons and husband, she was conferred the honorary degree ‘Doctor of Law’. She was proud of her three sons, who had made important contributions in their respective fields towards the progress of the country and the development of the world.

Compton was curious about science from an early age. Initially, he developed interest in aeronautics. He had studied deeply the theories and practical aspects of airplanes. He had even constructed and flown a glider. But later, he was attracted towards astronomy. He had another interest. He would attend any lecture by experts in the town and try to understand it. With his homebuilt telescope he would stargaze for nights together and note his observations. He would photograph the planets and then study them. Actually, he was following Karl’s footsteps. All three Compton brothers graduated with honours from Wooster College and earned their Ph Ds from Princeton University. They were all good athletes in college.

When Arthur was a college student, he had invented the gyroscopic technique to control an aircraft and got it patented. He wanted to study Mechanical engineering, but when he saw Karl opting for mathematics and physics, he discussed it with him and finally decided to follow him. He got his doctorate in 1916. He worked as instructor in physics at Minnesota University for a year. Then he joined Westinghouse Corporation at Pittsburgh as research engineer. During his two-year service, he worked on development of aviation equipment for American Signal Corps. At the end of World War I, he decided to return to academic field. He accepted a research scholarship at the Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge University and worked with great scientists like J J Thomson and Ernest Rutherford. He got trained under such greats during this period.

Compton returned to America in 1920 and joined the University Washington at St. Louis as professor and head of physics department. Soon, he was invited at Chicago University. He worked under the chairmanship of Professor Michelson, as head of the physics department. He stayed there for 22 years. He was successful in roping Robert Millikan as the chairman of the physics department. He was attracted towards the important scientific researches of this great scientist and got interested in the basic research. He also got involved in the in-depth research in nuclear physics. He observed and explained the change in the wavelength of X-rays when they are deflected by electrons. Known as the Compton effect, it is caused by the transfer of energy from the photon to the electron. Its discovery in 1922 confirmed the dual nature of electromagnetic radiation as both a wave and a particle. It also went on to prove that the wavelength of X-rays could be increased. Scientists readily accepted this important discovery. In 1927, Compton was awarded the Nobel Prize for his work on scattering (deflection) of X-rays by electrons. He shared the prize equally with CTR Wilson who was awarded the prize for his discovery of the cloud chamber.

Now his attention was drawn to the cosmic rays. He had in 1913 tried to learn about the nature of cosmic rays and conducted research to understand them. He formed a group of scientists to unravel the mysteries of cosmic rays. Such eight groups worked all over the world, to gather information about cosmic rays. They worked in different regions like Arctic, Equatorial, Asia, Europe and South American Regions. For Compiling and assessing the results, Compton traveled nearly 50,000 miles or about 80,000 kilometers.

Till 1939, Compton was not much interested in uranium or nuclear fission. But with the discovery of cyclotron by Lawrence and its subsequent scientific and medical application, Compton directed his interest towards it. On the other hand, America had launched the atomic project sensing the World War II situation. Need arose for great scientists and good administrators. Compton was an obvious choice. This project was sanctioned in 1941 by the then president of America, Franklin Roosevelt on recommendation of foremost scientists of the time, Albert Einstein, Enrico Fermi and Leo Szilar. A core group of scientists was constituted and sufficient funds were allocated. Later on, some defense officers were also included in the team. The project was named Manhattan Project. On the assurance of Enrico Fermi, Compton took this responsibility. It was difficult to build a nuclear reactor. Finally, it was erected in the Chicago Football Stadium. From 1942 to 1945 he was director of the Metallurgical Laboratory at the University of Chicago, which developed the first self-sustaining atomic chain reaction that paved the way for controlled release of nuclear energy. Things worked as per the schedule and the atom bomb was tested successfully. Compton realized that this project could cause huge loss of human life and untold devastation. But he also saw it as a means to stop the on-going war. Ultimately, what followed came to be known all over the world. May be, personally speaking, Compton and other senior scientists may not have felt morally justified in conducting such a research.

After World War II, Einstein, Fermi and Compton along with other scientists advocated use of atomic energy only for the benefit of the society. Compton returned to academics and established three important research centres:
(1) Institute of Nuclear Studies
(2) Metallurgy Institute and
(3) Institute of Radiology.

Thereafter, in 1945, Compton became Chancellor of the University of Washington and then professor of natural history there from 1953 to 1961. During the war, Compton was at the forefront of decision making process on several important science related issues. Many held him as one of those responsible for the atomic massacre in Japan. He believed that the radiation emitted at the time of nuclear fission is a natural process. The use of science for the benefit of humankind is indeed of the hour. He died at the age of 70 on Match 15, 1962, in Berkeley, California, USA.