Michael Faraday (22 September 1791 – 25 August 1867)

Michael Faraday (22 September 1791 – 25 August 1867) was a scientist, chemist, physicist and philosopher who greatly contributed to the fields of electromagnetism and electrochemistry. His main discoveries include that of the Magnetic Field, Induction, Diamagnetism and Electrolysis.

Michael Farady was born at Newington, Surrey, now a part of South London on September 22, 1791. His father was a blacksmith who has migrated in search of work form the north of England in 1791. Due to ill health he faced lot of difficulties at work. His mother was a country woman of great calm and wisdom who supported her son emotionally through a difficult childhood. Born in such a family, he had to make do with the available education of alphabets and arithmetic from the Church Sunday school. Physically too, Michael was weak and skinny. Faraday had three other siblings and all of them could barely be fed as their father was ill and often incapable of doing any work. It is said that Faraday reminisced having lived on one loaf of bread for a week. Belonging to the small Sandemanian sect of the Christian faith, religion provided Faraday spiritual power to survive all adverse situations. This had the single most important effect on him that led him in quest of nature and approach towards life in general.

One kind-hearted distributor of books gave him the job of distributing newspapers and at the age of 13, he employed him at his shop and also taught him book- binding work. Thus, his going to school came to an abrupt end. Finding time out of his working hours, he began reading books available there thus acquiring knowledge. He came across an exhaustive write-up on electricity in the third edition of Encyclopaedia Britannica which opened new vistas for him. This reading brought a great transformation in his life. He was so inspired by it that he went on to purchase necessary items to make a Leyden jar. Using old bottles and lumber, he made this crude electrostatic generator and conducted simple experiments. He also constructed a weak voltaic pile that helped him perform experiments in electrochemistry.



As his interest in science increased, he joined the philosophical society there and began attending lectures, enhancing his knowledge. Around this time Faraday got the opportunity to attend lectures in chemistry by the famous chemist Sir Humphry Davy in the year 1812 at the Royal institution in London. This was the turning point in his life. He was inspired by the lectures. He copiously took down the notes and prepared a bound volume by hand. He presented it to Sir Humphry Davy, along with an application for a job. Alas, there was no opening! He even wrote a letter to the president of the Royal Society, Joseph Banks, requesting for an odd job there. He received no reply from him. However, Davy did not forget and in 1813, when one of his laboratory assistants was dismissed for misbehavior, Faraday began as Davy’s laboratory assistant and learned chemistry under one of the greatest chemists of those times. It is said that Faraday was Davy’s laboratory assistant and learned chemistry under one of the greatest chemists of those times. It is said that Faraday was Davy’s greatest discovery. Finally in 1815, he got promoted as assistant and was given the charge of looking after the laboratory instruments. In 1825, he was promoted as the director of the laboratory. He was now totally engrossed in his scientific pursuits. For several years he experimented the experiments that Sir Davy had performed. In chemistry, he performed electrochemical and metallurgical experiments. He made invaluable contribution in the invention of the famous ‘Davy Safety Lamp’.

In his electrochemical experiments he reached such levels in analysis that he propounded that famous laws of electrolysis named after him. He gave simple and easy to understand principles on the phenomenon of electrolysis. Faraday’s two laws of electrochemistry are:

1) The amount of a substance deposited on each electrode of an electrolytic cell is directly proportional to the quantity of electricity passed through the cell.

2) The quantities of different elements deposited by a given amount of electricity are in the ratio of their chemical equivalent weights. Faraday discovered benzene in 1825.

Further, in 1831, he conducted a series of experiments giving clear picture on magnetism and also produced electricity by speedily changing the magnetic forces. In 1827, he was invited to join as professor of chemistry at the London University College which he modestly turned down. In 1833, he was selected for the Fullerian professorship of Chemistry at the Royal Institute. Meanwhile, he took up another assignment as part time lecturer at the Woolwich based Royal Military Academy. He even advised and directed other institutions during this period. Due to this shortage of time he had to face difficulties in his research activity.

To ensure that he would not have to face financial difficulties and that he would direct all his energies in research, efforts were made to secure pension- financial assistance from the government. A meeting was arranged with the then Prime Minister Lord Melbourne for this purpose. During the meeting the prime minister passed some negative remarks. He went on to say that government grants and assistance were a big fraud or a kind of cheating. This was just enough for Faraday. He immediately rejected the idea of seeking assistance and thus, ended their eventful meeting. Some even believed that Faraday was known famously as ‘Narure’s great refuser’. He refused to take up the University College professorship. He even refused the proposed Knighthood award of the title ‘Sir’ from the government for which his prior permission was sought. Not only this, he was offered the presidency not once, but twice by the Royal Society for which he expressed his inability. He had quite a different view about all these awards and honours. In 1824, he was made the Fellow of the Royal Society. After a lot of deliberation and delays he accepted the same.

Finally in 1835, Lord Melbourne was successful in seeking his pardon for the earlier rebuff and granting him government pension. For Faraday now, financial difficulties were a thing of the past. In the meanwhile, due to ill health his research was interrupted. Once again in 1845, he began his research- experiments. But now his efficiency had gone compared to what it was earlier. Prince Albert allotted a house for him in Hampton Court. He spent the rest of his life there. His research and inventions were unparalleled, wonderful and invaluable. In the electrochemical experiments he had conducted based on electrolysis, he separated certain elements. On its basis, he defined the unit of electricity- the ampere. By one ampere current we mean the amount of electrical current required to obtain 0.001118 gram of silver when silver nitrate is electrolyzed.

On the basis of his experiments on electricity and magnetism, electric motor was invented. This important research of his established him as a great scientist. In 1820, a famous physicist of Denmark, Hans Christian Oersted announced the discovery that the flow of an electric current through a wire produced a magnetic field around it. Andre Marie Ampere showed that the magnetic lines of force were circular around the wire. In October 1831, Faraday gave an affirmative answer to this question. Faraday also gave the laws of electric induction. He explained that creating relative motion in magnetic and electric field, magnetic field can be transformed into electric energy. In fact the electric generator designed by Faraday is the original form of today’s giant size dynamo.

Faraday made a unique contribution in popularizing science by giving a series of lectures from 1826 at the London based Royal Society for children during Christmas. For years he gave lectures to children providing them an insight on various scientific theories. Even today, eminent scientists are invited to give lectures during the Christmas lecture series. Faraday is considered to be the inventor of electric motor and generator. The unit of capacitance, the farad, is named in honour of Faraday. He also made contribution in the field of optics. He observed that the path of plane polarized light is electromagnetic by nature. Faraday introduced the concept of field (now called classical field) to explain his observation in electromagnetic experiments.

Since 1855, Faraday began to lose his mental abilities. He occasionally experimented on gravitation and other forces and conversion thereof. The Royal Society then refused to publish his negative results that he announced causing lot of disappointment to him. Further, Faraday began to sink into senility or a disease caused due to damage to brain cells in old age. Earlier, he had rejected the knighthood though he took up the residence at Hampton Court. He wanted to die as a plain Mr. Faraday. On August 25, 1867, this great scientist left for his heavenly abode and would always be remembered as a bright star shining in the sky forever.

Dr. Jayant Narlikar

The great Indian astrophysicist, Dr Jayant Narlikar was born on July 19, 1938, in a highly educated and cultured family in Kolhapur district of Maharashtra. His father Prof. Vishnu Vasudev Narlikar was the Head of the Department of Mathematics at Benaras Hindu University. Thereafter he was Chairman of the Rajasthan Public Service Commission. Jayant Narlikar had his education in Varanasi. His mother was a graduate in Sanskrit from Mumbai (Bombay) University. Besides, she loved English literature. She was graceful, cultured and educated lady.



Young Narlikar was exceptionally talented and always topped at school and college examinations. Mathematics was his favourite subject. Besides, he enjoyed reading. In 1959, he cleared BSc Honours from Benaras Hindu University. He stood first in the University. His subjects were mathematics and astrophysics. For further studies his father wanted to send him abroad. Before leaving India, he was informed by those who had already been to England, not to be complacent. Life would be tough but having worked hard, he came out with flying colours. The advice he received from his father and particularly, his maternal uncle Dr. Vasantrao Hujurbazar really stood him in good stead.



Besides his parents, Fred Hoyle, his teacher and mentor had a great influence on him. Besides, his extraordinary result at the graduate level also fetched him a scholarship. He was sent to England, where he joined Cambridge University. Here he obtained MSc degree in just two years. Incidentally at that time a world famous teacher of astrophysics was in Cambridge. He was, Frederick Hoyle, better known as Fred Hoyle, Hoyle was professor at Kings College, Cambridge and conducting research on the speed and condition of celestial bodies. Narlikar registered for PhD under Hoyle and began research work. Hoyle accepted him wholeheartedly, In 1963, Jayant Narlikar was awarded PhD by Cambridge University. He stayed in Cambridge from 1957 to 1962.



During his 15 years stay abroad Dr. Narlikar made many important researches. At the age of 22 years he became member of the Royal Astronautical Society. He was also appointed Fellow at Kings College, Cambridge. His father too, was member of this institute. His PhD thesis included research on principles of gravitation, gravitational pull between different celestial bodies, formation of the universe and others. He had also presented another view to the popular Big Bang theory. According to his theory the universe is not expanding but static (still). He had described it as ‘steady state’. This theory shed new light on the subject. With Fred Hoyle, he presented the famous Conformal Theory of Gravity, which became well-known all over the world. Narlikar and Hoyle worked on cosmology, including the steady state theory, theory of gravitation, electrodynamics, etc. They propounded that the force of other powers in space and the universe has an effect on the mass of matter. Besides, it also affects the shape and size of matter. It is generally believed that the gravitational pull depends on the mass of the object. He suggested that the gravitational pull on celestial bodies depends on its density. As the internal density of the object is more, so is the gravitational pull on celestial bodies depends on its density. As the internal density of the object is more, so is the gravitational pull. This is the reason why such heavenly bodies try to devour other heavenly bodies. As the mass of these objects increases it becomes dense. Its density increase so much that such a pinch of mass is equivalent to several tons in weight. In the end it becomes a Black Hole. Such objects do not even allow light to escape from them.



His researches on gravitation of space objects are considered noteworthy. He received awards and medals from many institute in Europe. In 1969, the Union education Minstry invited Dr Narlikar and Hoyle to visit India and deliver lectures. In 1968, Cambridge University honoured him by presenting him the Adam Award. Earlier, three Indian scientists had received this prestigious award: in 1944, Dr. Homi Bhabha; in 1948, Dr S Chandrashekhar; and in 1961, Dr Hujurbazar, This award is given every two years in the memory of Dr J C Adams, astrophysics and natural science. Adams was an outstanding astronomer, who has predicted the existence of planet Neptune in 1846.



Narlikar married Mangala Sadashiv Rajwade in 1966. In 1969, when he returned to India, he was conferred the Padma Bhushan by the Government of India. Mumbai’s Tata Institute of Fundamental Research invited him to join as professor of astrophysics. Narlikar too had decided to offer his services to the country. In 1972, he joined TIFR as professor. Besides research and teaching, he guided doctoral students. Here he continued research on tachyons. Tachyons are particles that move faster than the speed of light. According to Dr Narlikar, Black Holes are bases of tachyons. They absorb light coming from outside and with tremendous pressure contracts the surface of the Black Hole. After coming here Narlikar developed one more activity. To popularize science and especially astronomy among the people he wrote book Akashashi Jadle Nate (Related to the Sky) in his mother tongue Marathi. Besides he also wrote science stories. His books have also been translated into Hindi and Gujarati. He is an accomplished science fiction writer.



In September 1988, the late Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi encouraged him to start astronomy and nuclear physics inter university centre. Through the university Grants Commission and central aid such a centre has been made possible. Narlikar was its first director and worked as Homi Bhabha professor. In 1988, he attended an international conference on astronomy at Baltimore in America. On January 10 1989, the National Science Academy honoured Narlikar with the Venu Bappu Memorial Award for 1988. This award includes Rs. 25000 in cash and a medal. In 1990 he was awarded the Indian Science Academy’s Indira Gandhi Award and in 1996, UNESCO’s ‘Kalinga Award’. Recently, on March 12, 2003, the Yashwantroa Chavan Rashtriya Puraskar – 2002’ was presented to Narlikar.



We pray to the almighty to grant good health and long life to this great Indian scientist, so that he may continue to serve the world of science and the country.

Dr. Jayant Narlikar Photo

Arthur Compton (1892 – 1962)

Arthur Holly Compton was born on September 10, 1892, at Wooster, Ohio, USA. His father Elias Compton was professor of Philosophy at Wooster College, Oxford, in Ohio, and also served as priest in the church there. Arthur, the youngest of three brothers and a sister, was brought up in religious atmosphere at home. His sister Mary married a missionary. They worked and settled in Allahabad, India. Arthur’s eldest brother Karl Compton was a physicist, who had written many papers. Besides, he had done considerable research on photo electricity and the crystal structure. He was appointed president of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Another brother, Wilson Compton, gained reputation as a good economist and able administrator.

Their mother, Otelia was a doting mother and had raised the children with utmost care and attention. She was their guide and toiled for her children. She was aware of her children’s activities and took care to ensure that they did no wrong. The children too reciprocated and were aware of her contribution in their progress. Probably this was the reason that in October 1932, Wooster College of Ohio honoured 74-year old Otelia Compton as the best mother. In presence of her three sons and husband, she was conferred the honorary degree ‘Doctor of Law’. She was proud of her three sons, who had made important contributions in their respective fields towards the progress of the country and the development of the world.

Compton was curious about science from an early age. Initially, he developed interest in aeronautics. He had studied deeply the theories and practical aspects of airplanes. He had even constructed and flown a glider. But later, he was attracted towards astronomy. He had another interest. He would attend any lecture by experts in the town and try to understand it. With his homebuilt telescope he would stargaze for nights together and note his observations. He would photograph the planets and then study them. Actually, he was following Karl’s footsteps. All three Compton brothers graduated with honours from Wooster College and earned their Ph Ds from Princeton University. They were all good athletes in college.

When Arthur was a college student, he had invented the gyroscopic technique to control an aircraft and got it patented. He wanted to study Mechanical engineering, but when he saw Karl opting for mathematics and physics, he discussed it with him and finally decided to follow him. He got his doctorate in 1916. He worked as instructor in physics at Minnesota University for a year. Then he joined Westinghouse Corporation at Pittsburgh as research engineer. During his two-year service, he worked on development of aviation equipment for American Signal Corps. At the end of World War I, he decided to return to academic field. He accepted a research scholarship at the Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge University and worked with great scientists like J J Thomson and Ernest Rutherford. He got trained under such greats during this period.

Compton returned to America in 1920 and joined the University Washington at St. Louis as professor and head of physics department. Soon, he was invited at Chicago University. He worked under the chairmanship of Professor Michelson, as head of the physics department. He stayed there for 22 years. He was successful in roping Robert Millikan as the chairman of the physics department. He was attracted towards the important scientific researches of this great scientist and got interested in the basic research. He also got involved in the in-depth research in nuclear physics. He observed and explained the change in the wavelength of X-rays when they are deflected by electrons. Known as the Compton effect, it is caused by the transfer of energy from the photon to the electron. Its discovery in 1922 confirmed the dual nature of electromagnetic radiation as both a wave and a particle. It also went on to prove that the wavelength of X-rays could be increased. Scientists readily accepted this important discovery. In 1927, Compton was awarded the Nobel Prize for his work on scattering (deflection) of X-rays by electrons. He shared the prize equally with CTR Wilson who was awarded the prize for his discovery of the cloud chamber.

Now his attention was drawn to the cosmic rays. He had in 1913 tried to learn about the nature of cosmic rays and conducted research to understand them. He formed a group of scientists to unravel the mysteries of cosmic rays. Such eight groups worked all over the world, to gather information about cosmic rays. They worked in different regions like Arctic, Equatorial, Asia, Europe and South American Regions. For Compiling and assessing the results, Compton traveled nearly 50,000 miles or about 80,000 kilometers.

Till 1939, Compton was not much interested in uranium or nuclear fission. But with the discovery of cyclotron by Lawrence and its subsequent scientific and medical application, Compton directed his interest towards it. On the other hand, America had launched the atomic project sensing the World War II situation. Need arose for great scientists and good administrators. Compton was an obvious choice. This project was sanctioned in 1941 by the then president of America, Franklin Roosevelt on recommendation of foremost scientists of the time, Albert Einstein, Enrico Fermi and Leo Szilar. A core group of scientists was constituted and sufficient funds were allocated. Later on, some defense officers were also included in the team. The project was named Manhattan Project. On the assurance of Enrico Fermi, Compton took this responsibility. It was difficult to build a nuclear reactor. Finally, it was erected in the Chicago Football Stadium. From 1942 to 1945 he was director of the Metallurgical Laboratory at the University of Chicago, which developed the first self-sustaining atomic chain reaction that paved the way for controlled release of nuclear energy. Things worked as per the schedule and the atom bomb was tested successfully. Compton realized that this project could cause huge loss of human life and untold devastation. But he also saw it as a means to stop the on-going war. Ultimately, what followed came to be known all over the world. May be, personally speaking, Compton and other senior scientists may not have felt morally justified in conducting such a research.

After World War II, Einstein, Fermi and Compton along with other scientists advocated use of atomic energy only for the benefit of the society. Compton returned to academics and established three important research centres:
(1) Institute of Nuclear Studies
(2) Metallurgy Institute and
(3) Institute of Radiology.

Thereafter, in 1945, Compton became Chancellor of the University of Washington and then professor of natural history there from 1953 to 1961. During the war, Compton was at the forefront of decision making process on several important science related issues. Many held him as one of those responsible for the atomic massacre in Japan. He believed that the radiation emitted at the time of nuclear fission is a natural process. The use of science for the benefit of humankind is indeed of the hour. He died at the age of 70 on Match 15, 1962, in Berkeley, California, USA.

Scientist Niels Bohr (1885 – 1962)

The man to present the first ever model of an atom, the fount of knowledge, Niels Henrik David Bohr was born on October 7, 1885 in Copenhagen, Denmark. His father Christian Bohr was a professor of physiology at Copenhagen University. His mother Ellen Adler Bohr came from a wealthy Jewish family prominent in Danish banking and parliamentary circles. Niels was born in his maternal family home in ‘King Georg’s Palace’, considered to be one of the prominent and majestic private homes of Copenhagen.

Niels Bohr had primary, secondary and university education in Copenhagen. He was a brilliant and industrious student. He and his younger brother Harold were good football players. They were proud members of the Danish football team. In the Scandinavian state too, they were considered as leading players. It is said that if you ask a Danish citizen about his pride in the four best things of Denmark, he would say: its prosperous shipbuilding industry, her prosperous dairy and cheese industry and her two prodigious sons – the famed artist Hans Christian Andersen and country’s greatest scientist Niels Bohr. The Danish Science Society had awarded a gold medal to Bohr for ingenious study of surface tension. His brother Harold became a great mathematician later.

In 1911, Bohr completed his doctorate in physics. Then he went to London and under the able guidance of Sir J J Thomson, the ‘Father of Electron’, he started research at the Cavendish Laboratory. He then worked with Ernest Rutherford at Manchester for about four years. They remained good friends throughout their lives. Bohr even named his son Ernest after his dear friend. In 1913, Bohr presented his basic theory of the internal structure of an atom. Later, it underwent lot of changes and transformations over a period known as Bohr’s atomic model or Bohr’s theory of atom. This theory became very useful in the fields of chemistry and atomic science. Thanks to this theory that today so much development has taken place in the field of atomic energy.

An atom is the smallest particle of an element that exists freely and takes part in a chemical reaction. Atoms of same or different elements combine to form molecules. Molecules form a solid or liquid or gas depending upon the intermolecular strength or force and conditions like temperature and pressure. An atom is made of two parts. Its core is known as nucleus which contains all the positive charge in the atom and almost all the mass of the atom. The electrons move at high speed in circular orbits around the nucleus. This is known as Bohr model of the atom. It can be compared to the solar system. In the solar system, the sum is at the centre and the planets and asteroids revolve around the sun in the specific orbits. Atom is very small. The diameter of atom’s nucleus is supposed to be 100000th part of an atom’s diameter. Electrons revolve around it at high speed. Hydrogen is the lightest element among all the natural elements. Its nucleus contains only one proton. It carries positive charge. An electron is electrically equal – same as that of the proton, but negative in charge. A proton is 1836 times heavier than an electron. In the hydrogen atom there is only one proton with one electron. The next lightweight element is helium. Its nucleus has two protons and two neutrons. Two electrons move around the nucleus. Uranium is the heaviest of all natural elements. It has 92 electrons, which revolve in 7 different orbits around the nucleus. Thus, in each element the number of protons and neutrons differs.

Bohr, with the help of his atomic model and planck’s quantum theory, was able to explain the stability of the atom and the origin of atomic spectra. Normally, electrons revolve in their own assigned orbits in an atom. But when electricity or energy is passed trough an atom, the electrons quickly change their orbits and jump into a higher orbit. It returns to its original position in a short while. When electron moves to higher orbit it consumes energy and on its return, it releases energy. This release of energy is normally in the form of electromagnetic radiations. Bohr determined the atomic structure of matter by calculating the wavelength of the radiation produced during this process.

Bohr’s work provided a major breakthrough in atomic physics. It dawned a new era in science. Bohr received the Nobel Prize for physics nine years after his wonderful discovery, in 1922. At 37 years of age, he was the youngest physicist to receive this honour. Prior to this achievement, he was appointed chairman at the Copenhagen based Institute of Theoretical physics. In a small country like Denmark, scientist from all over the world would gather at Copenhagen due to Bohr. Einstein had spoken the truth when he asked as to what would have been the state of atomic knowledge, had Bohr not been there.

In 1939, a young Austrian Jew lady, Lise Meitner and her nephew Otto Robert Frisch came to Denmark from Nazi-infested Germany. They were appointed as researchers at Bohr’s institute to an article announcing that German scientists were working on their latest inventions and were planning to divide the nucleus of uranium into two equal parts. Bohr saw that if this was made possible, then immense energy could be produced during the process. It was also possible that Germans could use this technology to be powerful enough to destroy the world. Bohr rushed to America with this information. He discussed and deliberated on the issue with scientists Albert Einstein and Enrico Fermi. Fermi was working on this subject at Columbia University. It did not take much time for these eminent scientists to realize how dangerous it would be for the future of the world. The picture was very clear in their minds. Thereafter, America produced atom bombs and dropped them on two Japanese cities, Hiroshima and Nagasaki, to end the World War II.

Bohr immediately returned to Denmark after deliberations in America. In April 1940, Germany attacked and captured Denmark, sending the king behind bars and stripping the army off weapons. They had planned to kill 6000 Jews living in Denmark. But about 5000 of them safety sailed to Sweden, thus failing the German plan. Niels Bohr, the son of a Jewish mother and his wife Margrethe Norlund were rescued in the dead of night, by the Danish resistance movement in a fisherman’s boat to reach Sweden safely. Nazis raiden Bohr’s residence, but fortunately, they could not lay their hands on the gold medal awarded as the Nobel Prize. Later, Bohr reached America and joined his son Aage, then working as a research physicist at Los Alamos in a nuclear project.

Bohr returned to Copenhagen after the end of the World War II. He was deeply saddened by America’s attack on Japan. He advocated ban on nuclear explosion at international level. Bohr attended the peace conference at Geneva in 1955 as chairman of Denmarks Atomic Energy Commission. He was elected chairman of the conference. In October 1957, Bohr received the $ 75000 Atoms for peace Award from Ford. Bohr received the highest number of awards and medals in the world of science. Among his other researches, his work on the liquid drop model to explain nuclear properties and the principle of complementarity have played an important role in the development of modern physics.

In his last years Bohr tried to point out ways in which the idea of complementarities could throw light on many aspects of human life and thought. He had a major influence on several generations of physicists, deepening their approach to science and to their lives. Bohr himself was always ready to learn. He drew strength from his close personal ties with his co-workers, his sons, wife and brother. Profoundly Danish firmly rooted in his own culture. This was symbolized by his many public roles, particularly as president of the Royal Danish Academy from 1939 until the end of his life. He died in Copenhagen on November 19, 1962.

Sir James Chadwick (1891-1974)

James Chadwick, the discoverer of neutron, a constituent of the nucleus of an atom, was born in Manchester, England on October 20, 1891. He was the eldest son of J J Chadwick. After completing his schooling from the local school he joined the famed Victoria University in Manchester. He acquired his post-graduate degree in 1911. He received a scholarship and went to Charlotenberg, Germany for further study in 1913. Chadwick studied under Hans Geiger at the Technische Hochschule, Berlin. When the World War I broke out in 1914, the Germans captured him and sent him to a labour camp. There was some solace when he met some scientists there and discussed problems in science with them. Thus, he continued his studies mentally on the subject of his interest. When the war ended, he returned home in 1919.

Around the time of his return to Manchester, Lord Rutherford had for the first time made it possible to separate hydrogen and oxygen through artificial transformation. He worked with Rutherford for a while and then got on with his research. But in 1921, when Rutherford succeeded sir J J Thomson as professor of physics at Cavendish Laboratory, he invited Chadwick to join him. Chadwick accepted it happily. First of all, he completed his thesis and submitted it to the University. In 1921, he received doctorate from Cambridge University. He took up lectureship at Cavendish Laboratory and also assisted Rutherford in his research. What happens if the nucleus of an atom of an element is bombarded with high energy alpha particles? Can some new element be found out by doing so? He got down to solving these mysteries. He also wanted to know the structure and size of the nucleus. In 1922, Rutherford and Chadwick discovered ‘proton’ when they bombarded alpha particles on nitrogen nucleus. In 1925, Chadwick married Eileen Stuart Brown of Liverpool. The same year he was appointed assistant director at the laboratory.

In 1920, Scientist Williams Hawkins had predicted the presence of a neutral particle in a nucleus. Many years later, Chadwick discovered this particle called the neutron. For this, Chadwick was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1935. During the same year, he resigned from Cambridge due to different of opinion with Rutherford on building a new device called cyclotron. He then joined Lavon Jones Institute in Liverpool University as Professor and built the first cyclotron in UK. In the wake of World War II in 1939, it was decided to bring both British Atomic Project and America’s Project at Manhattan together. In 1941, as part of the British Project, he joined the Tube Alloys Project. Two years later, he went to America, He became the scientific advisor to the American-British-Canadian Policy Committee at Oakridge. He was also associated with Robert Oppenheimer’s team working at Los Alamos, New Mexico, USA. This team was working to produce an atomic bomb to end the war.

July 16, 1945 was set for the test of the atomic bomb. The bomb was planet on a 32 ton 100 feet tower erected at Gyro Hill- Alamogordo air base in the desert 120 miles southeast of Albuquerque, New Mexico. At 5.30 in the morning, at a control room, 9 miles (14.5 kms) away from the site, in the presence of about 100 scientists a robot pressed the button. An immense fireball rose in the air. The blast was so loud that it was heard 450 miles away in Taxas. The smoke covered the area of 7 miles. The tower has melted with the heat energy produced. The test was declared successful and the scientist’s job was over. On August 6, 1945, the first atom bomb was dropped on the Japanese city of Hiroshima. In a short while, around 6000 people were killed, 40000 were rendered blind and 20000 gradually became the victims. The entire city had turned into a big graveyard. The second atom bomb was dropped on Nagasaki on August 9, 1945. Japan immediately surrendered and World War II came to and end.

Many atomic scientists believe that such use can only cause mass destruction and unhappiness. Scientists believe that this demon can be tamed and used constructively, to make life happy and prosperous in this world. By 1945, Chadwick was known all over the world as an extraordinary, cultured and self-possessed man. He was also known as a calm, composed and selfless scientist. The British government conferred knighthood on him and appointed him the National Science Advisor. He also served as the British representative to the American Atomic Energy Commission.

Besides his being awarded the Nobel Prize in 1935 for the discovery of the neutron, many international universities and scientific institution honoured him. In 1946, he received the Merit Medal of the USA. In 1950, the Royal Society of England conferred on him the Copley Medal. Franklin Institute, Philadelphia awarded him the Franklin Award. The American Physics Society and other reputed institutions offered him honorary membership. Since 1957 he was associated with the United Kingdom Atomic Energy Institute as part-time member.

Many reputed science periodicals and journals published his articles and research papers. He also wrote on radiation in several magazines and reputed newspapers. These were very informative and useful for scientists, science teachers and the public, at large. In 1930, in collaboration with Lord Rutherford and Sir Charles Ellis he wrote a reference book titled ‘Rays Emanating from Radioactive Substances’. The revised edition was published in 1933. On July 24, 1974, at Cambridge, Cambridgeshire, England, this great scientist passed away at 84. May his invaluable contributions be used for constructive purposes in this world. It is only the future that can reveal whether this discovery of nuclear energy would be beneficial or detrimental to the world.

Scientist James Chadwick photo

Lord Ernest Rutherford (1871-1937)

Ernest Rutherford was born on August 30, 1871 in the southern island of Nelson, in New Zealand. His parents belonged to the Scottish farming community of England and had migrated to New Zealand in 1842. They were cultured and well educated. In 1889, Ernest won a scholarship to Nelson College, a secondary school, where he was a popular boy. Another scholarship allowed him to enroll in Canterbury College, from where he graduated with a BA in 1892 and an MA in 1893 with first-class honours in mathematics and physics.

In 1895, Cambridge University announced scholarships for deserving students of British Commonwealth countries. This was a big break. Rutherford joined Cavendish Laboratory and started research. He was fortunate enough to get guidance from a genius like J J Thomson. It was the time when the sensational discovery of X-rays was just announced. This inspired Rutherford to work on it. Later on, he was attracted towards radioactivity. Thomson invited him to conduct research on the effects of X-rays on gases. Rutherford accepted the challenge happily and began the research. Thomson was already a world-renowned physicist and his assistant Rutherford was a brilliant researcher. Thomson considered Rutherford his best and most talented student. Rutherford concentrated on Becquerel’s discovery of some mysterious and unknown rays. He found out that just as X-rays ionize the gases, these unknown rays (radioactive rays) ionize the gases.

Meanwhile, a new post of professor of physics was created at McGill University at Montreal, in Canada. Thomson could not think of a better choice than Rutherford for the post. He inspired Rutherford to join the place. Rutherford was reluctant to leave a reputed place like Cavendish Laboratory, but to satisfy his guide’s desire he left for Canada in 1898. Here, he studied Becquerel rays under the effect of electric and magnetic fields. He made a wonderful discovery that these rays consisted of three types of rays, alpha, beta and gamma rays. He also succeeded in identifying two types: The radioactive rays that could be blocked by a thick paper were alpha rays (positively charged) and the ones that could be blocked by thin aluminium foil were beta rays. Beta rays were negatively charged electrons. Besides, he came to know that gamma rays were very powerful like X-rays. Here, he got an opportunity to work with the great English chemist Frederick Soddy (Nobel Prize winner for Chemistry in 1921). Rutherford and Soddy then investigated three groups of radioactive elements-radium, thorium and actinium. They concluded in 1902 that radioactivity was a process in which atoms of one element spontaneously disintegrated into atoms of an entirely different element, which also were radioactive. This interpretation was opposed by many chemists who held firmly to the concept of the indestructibility of matter; the suggestion that some atoms could tear themselves apart to form entirely different kinds of matter was to them a remnant of medieval alchemy.

In 1907, Rutherford got an opportunity to return to England. There was a vacancy worth his caliber at Manchester University. He joined here and continued research in radioactivity. In 1908, Rutherford was awarded the Nobel Prize for Chemistry for his research on radioactivity and nucleus of the atom, though he was a well-known professor of physics. The British government knighted him and he became Lord Rutherford of Nelson. He was thus honoured for his outstanding contribution in scientific research.

Another favourite student of J J Thomson, C T R Wilson was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1927 for his invention of the cloud chamber named after him. Rutherford used this equipment to study alpha rays more closely. He carried out many experiments on scattering of alpha particles by this foils of metals. On the basis of his experimental results, he announced in 1911 that the nucleus of an atom contained all the positive charge, which caused the alpha particles to divert their path as they approached the nucleus. Rutherford was then hailed as the discoverer of proton, the positively charged particle in the atom. It was Rutherford who discovered that an atom had a dense and massive positively-charged nucleus with the light negatively-charged electrons revolving around it. The simplest and lightest atom was that of hydrogen, with only one electron. In 1919, Rutherford proposed that the positively charged particle in the nucleus of hydrogen atom is a proton. These particles are present in the nuclei of all elements. The mass of a proton is 1836 times more than that of an electron. Like an electron, proton is also an elementary particle. Though proton is quite heavy than electron the electrical charge on both is equal but of opposite types. The mass of a proton is 1.6726231 X 10 -27 kg and proton’s electrical charge is 1.602.X 10 -19 coulomb.

Rutherford’s celebrated students include Henri Moseley and Niels Bohr. It was thanks to the joint efforts of Rutherford and Bohr that the clear structure of the stom emerged. In 1919, Rutherford was appointed the director of Cambridge University and chairman of Cavendish Laboratory. This was a memorable day for Rutherford as he had succeeded his guide J J Thomson. Thomson’s another student James Chadwick discovered neutron in 1932, though Rutherford had predicted the existence of such a particle long before. The ‘Father of Proton’, researcher of radioactivity, Rutherford died in 1937. He published about 80 research papers, winning respect, honour and medals, aptly to be called Lord Ernest Rutherford of Nelson.

John Logie Baird

The inventor of the television, John Logie Baird was born on August 13, 1888, at a hamlet Helensburgh, Dunbarton, near Glasgow, Scotland. Son of a Scottish engineer, he became the first man to televise pictures of objects in motion. The Youngest in the family, John was of weak constitution and often remained ill, especially afflicted with cold. This affected his study. He did not have any particular interest in reading. His only interest was photography. He was a member of his school photography club. Boys took photographs all by themselves. The club held a monthly competition wherein the best photograph among those clicked by the students was awarded a prize.

John had another interest too. He conducted experiments using electric wires. He had a particular interest in telephone. He had even linked a telephone line from his home to his friend’s house at some distance and both would talk for hours on this indigenous phone line. On one particular stormy night the wires broke off, and got tangled and coiled around the neck of passerby. Luckily, the man was saved, but John got the scolding of his life and thus ended this saga. As he grew up, his electrical experiments increased. Once, he thought of creating diamonds. He thought out a formula and collected the required material, some of it explosive in nature. But the volatile explosive material suddenly caught fire resulting in a blast. Though he was saved, he vowed never to do such dangerous experiments.

With a view to be an engineer, Baird took up a job at an electricity company. He realized that he had to earn his bread. But he was not much comfortable at his work. One day he was so severely struck by bad cold that he was confined to his bed. To keep himself warm, he wrapped papers on his feet. It worked. This triggered him of an idea to make socks. He brought necessary things the next morning, dyed the cotton yarn in various colours and made colourful socks. He went to a shopkeeper and showed his creation. The shopkeeper bought all the socks and asked him to supply more. Soon, Glasgow dwellers were using this innovative creation of Baird. Later, he employed people for mass production of socks.

He was once again down with severe cold and illness. The doctor advised him to stay at a place with warmer climate. He decided to go to West Indies. He was happy with the prospect of the extended market for socks. But the shopkeepers in West Indies did not show any interest in his socks. He was unable to sell even a single pair of socks. His ever creative mind thought of something else. West Indies had many orchards of lemon, orange and sugar cane. He thought of pickle factory and soon discovered to his horror that the sugar and the sweet aroma of pickles attracted some poisonous insects in the area. They even bit Baird. His health further deteriorated and he returned to London.

The cold climate of London did not suit him as it was very cold there and the doctor advised him to move near the seashore. This worked. On a pleasant evening, while he was taking a stroll on the beach, he heard a song on radio playing at a nearby hotel. Suddenly it struck him: sound could travel far through waves. He wondered if it was possible to send visuals the same way. He started working on this concept. He collected the required material: wire, and empty trunk, batteries, empty cookie tins, bicycle headlight, candle, etc. He worked continuously for days experimenting on the contraption. Finally, he could produce a blurred picture on a screen in his room. Now, he worked hard to obtain a clearer picture. When his landlord came to know about his experiments, he threw him out. But he was undeterred. He returned to London and worked even more enthusiastically. After many days, he succeeded in producing clear images on the screen. Coming to know the experiment and its results, people started dropping at his residence, taking keen interest in his work. Once, Baird made a boy stand in one room and showed his image on a screen in another room. He could even show the movements of the boy clearly on the screen. He was extremely delighted with his success.

He invited scientists and journalists for a demonstration. They appreciated his work and congratulation him for his invaluable invention. Soon, the world knew about Baird and his invention. Initially, the pictures appeared blurred, but soon they became clear. He even succeeded in relaying colored pictures. Now, he started relaying opera and theatre on his television. He even started work on developing a television set. Despite employing many people he was unable to meet the public demand. In fact, he had envisioned a television station on the lines of a radio station. But commencement of World War II marred his plans. Besides, his relay station was also bombarded and destroyed. Meanwhile, he progressed towards the broadcast of colour pictures.

Once again he was struck by a bout of severe cold. This time it was life threatening. He left the experiments midway and returned home. On June 14, 1946, at Bexhill – on-Sea, Sussex, England, this after presenting the world with the wonderful gift – television, the 58 year old John Logie Baird bid adieu.