Dr. Jayant Narlikar

The great Indian astrophysicist, Dr Jayant Narlikar was born on July 19, 1938, in a highly educated and cultured family in Kolhapur district of Maharashtra. His father Prof. Vishnu Vasudev Narlikar was the Head of the Department of Mathematics at Benaras Hindu University. Thereafter he was Chairman of the Rajasthan Public Service Commission. Jayant Narlikar had his education in Varanasi. His mother was a graduate in Sanskrit from Mumbai (Bombay) University. Besides, she loved English literature. She was graceful, cultured and educated lady.



Young Narlikar was exceptionally talented and always topped at school and college examinations. Mathematics was his favourite subject. Besides, he enjoyed reading. In 1959, he cleared BSc Honours from Benaras Hindu University. He stood first in the University. His subjects were mathematics and astrophysics. For further studies his father wanted to send him abroad. Before leaving India, he was informed by those who had already been to England, not to be complacent. Life would be tough but having worked hard, he came out with flying colours. The advice he received from his father and particularly, his maternal uncle Dr. Vasantrao Hujurbazar really stood him in good stead.



Besides his parents, Fred Hoyle, his teacher and mentor had a great influence on him. Besides, his extraordinary result at the graduate level also fetched him a scholarship. He was sent to England, where he joined Cambridge University. Here he obtained MSc degree in just two years. Incidentally at that time a world famous teacher of astrophysics was in Cambridge. He was, Frederick Hoyle, better known as Fred Hoyle, Hoyle was professor at Kings College, Cambridge and conducting research on the speed and condition of celestial bodies. Narlikar registered for PhD under Hoyle and began research work. Hoyle accepted him wholeheartedly, In 1963, Jayant Narlikar was awarded PhD by Cambridge University. He stayed in Cambridge from 1957 to 1962.



During his 15 years stay abroad Dr. Narlikar made many important researches. At the age of 22 years he became member of the Royal Astronautical Society. He was also appointed Fellow at Kings College, Cambridge. His father too, was member of this institute. His PhD thesis included research on principles of gravitation, gravitational pull between different celestial bodies, formation of the universe and others. He had also presented another view to the popular Big Bang theory. According to his theory the universe is not expanding but static (still). He had described it as ‘steady state’. This theory shed new light on the subject. With Fred Hoyle, he presented the famous Conformal Theory of Gravity, which became well-known all over the world. Narlikar and Hoyle worked on cosmology, including the steady state theory, theory of gravitation, electrodynamics, etc. They propounded that the force of other powers in space and the universe has an effect on the mass of matter. Besides, it also affects the shape and size of matter. It is generally believed that the gravitational pull depends on the mass of the object. He suggested that the gravitational pull on celestial bodies depends on its density. As the internal density of the object is more, so is the gravitational pull on celestial bodies depends on its density. As the internal density of the object is more, so is the gravitational pull. This is the reason why such heavenly bodies try to devour other heavenly bodies. As the mass of these objects increases it becomes dense. Its density increase so much that such a pinch of mass is equivalent to several tons in weight. In the end it becomes a Black Hole. Such objects do not even allow light to escape from them.



His researches on gravitation of space objects are considered noteworthy. He received awards and medals from many institute in Europe. In 1969, the Union education Minstry invited Dr Narlikar and Hoyle to visit India and deliver lectures. In 1968, Cambridge University honoured him by presenting him the Adam Award. Earlier, three Indian scientists had received this prestigious award: in 1944, Dr. Homi Bhabha; in 1948, Dr S Chandrashekhar; and in 1961, Dr Hujurbazar, This award is given every two years in the memory of Dr J C Adams, astrophysics and natural science. Adams was an outstanding astronomer, who has predicted the existence of planet Neptune in 1846.



Narlikar married Mangala Sadashiv Rajwade in 1966. In 1969, when he returned to India, he was conferred the Padma Bhushan by the Government of India. Mumbai’s Tata Institute of Fundamental Research invited him to join as professor of astrophysics. Narlikar too had decided to offer his services to the country. In 1972, he joined TIFR as professor. Besides research and teaching, he guided doctoral students. Here he continued research on tachyons. Tachyons are particles that move faster than the speed of light. According to Dr Narlikar, Black Holes are bases of tachyons. They absorb light coming from outside and with tremendous pressure contracts the surface of the Black Hole. After coming here Narlikar developed one more activity. To popularize science and especially astronomy among the people he wrote book Akashashi Jadle Nate (Related to the Sky) in his mother tongue Marathi. Besides he also wrote science stories. His books have also been translated into Hindi and Gujarati. He is an accomplished science fiction writer.



In September 1988, the late Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi encouraged him to start astronomy and nuclear physics inter university centre. Through the university Grants Commission and central aid such a centre has been made possible. Narlikar was its first director and worked as Homi Bhabha professor. In 1988, he attended an international conference on astronomy at Baltimore in America. On January 10 1989, the National Science Academy honoured Narlikar with the Venu Bappu Memorial Award for 1988. This award includes Rs. 25000 in cash and a medal. In 1990 he was awarded the Indian Science Academy’s Indira Gandhi Award and in 1996, UNESCO’s ‘Kalinga Award’. Recently, on March 12, 2003, the Yashwantroa Chavan Rashtriya Puraskar – 2002’ was presented to Narlikar.



We pray to the almighty to grant good health and long life to this great Indian scientist, so that he may continue to serve the world of science and the country.

Dr. Jayant Narlikar Photo

Arthur Compton (1892 – 1962)

Arthur Holly Compton was born on September 10, 1892, at Wooster, Ohio, USA. His father Elias Compton was professor of Philosophy at Wooster College, Oxford, in Ohio, and also served as priest in the church there. Arthur, the youngest of three brothers and a sister, was brought up in religious atmosphere at home. His sister Mary married a missionary. They worked and settled in Allahabad, India. Arthur’s eldest brother Karl Compton was a physicist, who had written many papers. Besides, he had done considerable research on photo electricity and the crystal structure. He was appointed president of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Another brother, Wilson Compton, gained reputation as a good economist and able administrator.

Their mother, Otelia was a doting mother and had raised the children with utmost care and attention. She was their guide and toiled for her children. She was aware of her children’s activities and took care to ensure that they did no wrong. The children too reciprocated and were aware of her contribution in their progress. Probably this was the reason that in October 1932, Wooster College of Ohio honoured 74-year old Otelia Compton as the best mother. In presence of her three sons and husband, she was conferred the honorary degree ‘Doctor of Law’. She was proud of her three sons, who had made important contributions in their respective fields towards the progress of the country and the development of the world.

Compton was curious about science from an early age. Initially, he developed interest in aeronautics. He had studied deeply the theories and practical aspects of airplanes. He had even constructed and flown a glider. But later, he was attracted towards astronomy. He had another interest. He would attend any lecture by experts in the town and try to understand it. With his homebuilt telescope he would stargaze for nights together and note his observations. He would photograph the planets and then study them. Actually, he was following Karl’s footsteps. All three Compton brothers graduated with honours from Wooster College and earned their Ph Ds from Princeton University. They were all good athletes in college.

When Arthur was a college student, he had invented the gyroscopic technique to control an aircraft and got it patented. He wanted to study Mechanical engineering, but when he saw Karl opting for mathematics and physics, he discussed it with him and finally decided to follow him. He got his doctorate in 1916. He worked as instructor in physics at Minnesota University for a year. Then he joined Westinghouse Corporation at Pittsburgh as research engineer. During his two-year service, he worked on development of aviation equipment for American Signal Corps. At the end of World War I, he decided to return to academic field. He accepted a research scholarship at the Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge University and worked with great scientists like J J Thomson and Ernest Rutherford. He got trained under such greats during this period.

Compton returned to America in 1920 and joined the University Washington at St. Louis as professor and head of physics department. Soon, he was invited at Chicago University. He worked under the chairmanship of Professor Michelson, as head of the physics department. He stayed there for 22 years. He was successful in roping Robert Millikan as the chairman of the physics department. He was attracted towards the important scientific researches of this great scientist and got interested in the basic research. He also got involved in the in-depth research in nuclear physics. He observed and explained the change in the wavelength of X-rays when they are deflected by electrons. Known as the Compton effect, it is caused by the transfer of energy from the photon to the electron. Its discovery in 1922 confirmed the dual nature of electromagnetic radiation as both a wave and a particle. It also went on to prove that the wavelength of X-rays could be increased. Scientists readily accepted this important discovery. In 1927, Compton was awarded the Nobel Prize for his work on scattering (deflection) of X-rays by electrons. He shared the prize equally with CTR Wilson who was awarded the prize for his discovery of the cloud chamber.

Now his attention was drawn to the cosmic rays. He had in 1913 tried to learn about the nature of cosmic rays and conducted research to understand them. He formed a group of scientists to unravel the mysteries of cosmic rays. Such eight groups worked all over the world, to gather information about cosmic rays. They worked in different regions like Arctic, Equatorial, Asia, Europe and South American Regions. For Compiling and assessing the results, Compton traveled nearly 50,000 miles or about 80,000 kilometers.

Till 1939, Compton was not much interested in uranium or nuclear fission. But with the discovery of cyclotron by Lawrence and its subsequent scientific and medical application, Compton directed his interest towards it. On the other hand, America had launched the atomic project sensing the World War II situation. Need arose for great scientists and good administrators. Compton was an obvious choice. This project was sanctioned in 1941 by the then president of America, Franklin Roosevelt on recommendation of foremost scientists of the time, Albert Einstein, Enrico Fermi and Leo Szilar. A core group of scientists was constituted and sufficient funds were allocated. Later on, some defense officers were also included in the team. The project was named Manhattan Project. On the assurance of Enrico Fermi, Compton took this responsibility. It was difficult to build a nuclear reactor. Finally, it was erected in the Chicago Football Stadium. From 1942 to 1945 he was director of the Metallurgical Laboratory at the University of Chicago, which developed the first self-sustaining atomic chain reaction that paved the way for controlled release of nuclear energy. Things worked as per the schedule and the atom bomb was tested successfully. Compton realized that this project could cause huge loss of human life and untold devastation. But he also saw it as a means to stop the on-going war. Ultimately, what followed came to be known all over the world. May be, personally speaking, Compton and other senior scientists may not have felt morally justified in conducting such a research.

After World War II, Einstein, Fermi and Compton along with other scientists advocated use of atomic energy only for the benefit of the society. Compton returned to academics and established three important research centres:
(1) Institute of Nuclear Studies
(2) Metallurgy Institute and
(3) Institute of Radiology.

Thereafter, in 1945, Compton became Chancellor of the University of Washington and then professor of natural history there from 1953 to 1961. During the war, Compton was at the forefront of decision making process on several important science related issues. Many held him as one of those responsible for the atomic massacre in Japan. He believed that the radiation emitted at the time of nuclear fission is a natural process. The use of science for the benefit of humankind is indeed of the hour. He died at the age of 70 on Match 15, 1962, in Berkeley, California, USA.

Scientist Niels Bohr (1885 – 1962)

The man to present the first ever model of an atom, the fount of knowledge, Niels Henrik David Bohr was born on October 7, 1885 in Copenhagen, Denmark. His father Christian Bohr was a professor of physiology at Copenhagen University. His mother Ellen Adler Bohr came from a wealthy Jewish family prominent in Danish banking and parliamentary circles. Niels was born in his maternal family home in ‘King Georg’s Palace’, considered to be one of the prominent and majestic private homes of Copenhagen.

Niels Bohr had primary, secondary and university education in Copenhagen. He was a brilliant and industrious student. He and his younger brother Harold were good football players. They were proud members of the Danish football team. In the Scandinavian state too, they were considered as leading players. It is said that if you ask a Danish citizen about his pride in the four best things of Denmark, he would say: its prosperous shipbuilding industry, her prosperous dairy and cheese industry and her two prodigious sons – the famed artist Hans Christian Andersen and country’s greatest scientist Niels Bohr. The Danish Science Society had awarded a gold medal to Bohr for ingenious study of surface tension. His brother Harold became a great mathematician later.

In 1911, Bohr completed his doctorate in physics. Then he went to London and under the able guidance of Sir J J Thomson, the ‘Father of Electron’, he started research at the Cavendish Laboratory. He then worked with Ernest Rutherford at Manchester for about four years. They remained good friends throughout their lives. Bohr even named his son Ernest after his dear friend. In 1913, Bohr presented his basic theory of the internal structure of an atom. Later, it underwent lot of changes and transformations over a period known as Bohr’s atomic model or Bohr’s theory of atom. This theory became very useful in the fields of chemistry and atomic science. Thanks to this theory that today so much development has taken place in the field of atomic energy.

An atom is the smallest particle of an element that exists freely and takes part in a chemical reaction. Atoms of same or different elements combine to form molecules. Molecules form a solid or liquid or gas depending upon the intermolecular strength or force and conditions like temperature and pressure. An atom is made of two parts. Its core is known as nucleus which contains all the positive charge in the atom and almost all the mass of the atom. The electrons move at high speed in circular orbits around the nucleus. This is known as Bohr model of the atom. It can be compared to the solar system. In the solar system, the sum is at the centre and the planets and asteroids revolve around the sun in the specific orbits. Atom is very small. The diameter of atom’s nucleus is supposed to be 100000th part of an atom’s diameter. Electrons revolve around it at high speed. Hydrogen is the lightest element among all the natural elements. Its nucleus contains only one proton. It carries positive charge. An electron is electrically equal – same as that of the proton, but negative in charge. A proton is 1836 times heavier than an electron. In the hydrogen atom there is only one proton with one electron. The next lightweight element is helium. Its nucleus has two protons and two neutrons. Two electrons move around the nucleus. Uranium is the heaviest of all natural elements. It has 92 electrons, which revolve in 7 different orbits around the nucleus. Thus, in each element the number of protons and neutrons differs.

Bohr, with the help of his atomic model and planck’s quantum theory, was able to explain the stability of the atom and the origin of atomic spectra. Normally, electrons revolve in their own assigned orbits in an atom. But when electricity or energy is passed trough an atom, the electrons quickly change their orbits and jump into a higher orbit. It returns to its original position in a short while. When electron moves to higher orbit it consumes energy and on its return, it releases energy. This release of energy is normally in the form of electromagnetic radiations. Bohr determined the atomic structure of matter by calculating the wavelength of the radiation produced during this process.

Bohr’s work provided a major breakthrough in atomic physics. It dawned a new era in science. Bohr received the Nobel Prize for physics nine years after his wonderful discovery, in 1922. At 37 years of age, he was the youngest physicist to receive this honour. Prior to this achievement, he was appointed chairman at the Copenhagen based Institute of Theoretical physics. In a small country like Denmark, scientist from all over the world would gather at Copenhagen due to Bohr. Einstein had spoken the truth when he asked as to what would have been the state of atomic knowledge, had Bohr not been there.

In 1939, a young Austrian Jew lady, Lise Meitner and her nephew Otto Robert Frisch came to Denmark from Nazi-infested Germany. They were appointed as researchers at Bohr’s institute to an article announcing that German scientists were working on their latest inventions and were planning to divide the nucleus of uranium into two equal parts. Bohr saw that if this was made possible, then immense energy could be produced during the process. It was also possible that Germans could use this technology to be powerful enough to destroy the world. Bohr rushed to America with this information. He discussed and deliberated on the issue with scientists Albert Einstein and Enrico Fermi. Fermi was working on this subject at Columbia University. It did not take much time for these eminent scientists to realize how dangerous it would be for the future of the world. The picture was very clear in their minds. Thereafter, America produced atom bombs and dropped them on two Japanese cities, Hiroshima and Nagasaki, to end the World War II.

Bohr immediately returned to Denmark after deliberations in America. In April 1940, Germany attacked and captured Denmark, sending the king behind bars and stripping the army off weapons. They had planned to kill 6000 Jews living in Denmark. But about 5000 of them safety sailed to Sweden, thus failing the German plan. Niels Bohr, the son of a Jewish mother and his wife Margrethe Norlund were rescued in the dead of night, by the Danish resistance movement in a fisherman’s boat to reach Sweden safely. Nazis raiden Bohr’s residence, but fortunately, they could not lay their hands on the gold medal awarded as the Nobel Prize. Later, Bohr reached America and joined his son Aage, then working as a research physicist at Los Alamos in a nuclear project.

Bohr returned to Copenhagen after the end of the World War II. He was deeply saddened by America’s attack on Japan. He advocated ban on nuclear explosion at international level. Bohr attended the peace conference at Geneva in 1955 as chairman of Denmarks Atomic Energy Commission. He was elected chairman of the conference. In October 1957, Bohr received the $ 75000 Atoms for peace Award from Ford. Bohr received the highest number of awards and medals in the world of science. Among his other researches, his work on the liquid drop model to explain nuclear properties and the principle of complementarity have played an important role in the development of modern physics.

In his last years Bohr tried to point out ways in which the idea of complementarities could throw light on many aspects of human life and thought. He had a major influence on several generations of physicists, deepening their approach to science and to their lives. Bohr himself was always ready to learn. He drew strength from his close personal ties with his co-workers, his sons, wife and brother. Profoundly Danish firmly rooted in his own culture. This was symbolized by his many public roles, particularly as president of the Royal Danish Academy from 1939 until the end of his life. He died in Copenhagen on November 19, 1962.

Sir James Chadwick (1891-1974)

James Chadwick, the discoverer of neutron, a constituent of the nucleus of an atom, was born in Manchester, England on October 20, 1891. He was the eldest son of J J Chadwick. After completing his schooling from the local school he joined the famed Victoria University in Manchester. He acquired his post-graduate degree in 1911. He received a scholarship and went to Charlotenberg, Germany for further study in 1913. Chadwick studied under Hans Geiger at the Technische Hochschule, Berlin. When the World War I broke out in 1914, the Germans captured him and sent him to a labour camp. There was some solace when he met some scientists there and discussed problems in science with them. Thus, he continued his studies mentally on the subject of his interest. When the war ended, he returned home in 1919.

Around the time of his return to Manchester, Lord Rutherford had for the first time made it possible to separate hydrogen and oxygen through artificial transformation. He worked with Rutherford for a while and then got on with his research. But in 1921, when Rutherford succeeded sir J J Thomson as professor of physics at Cavendish Laboratory, he invited Chadwick to join him. Chadwick accepted it happily. First of all, he completed his thesis and submitted it to the University. In 1921, he received doctorate from Cambridge University. He took up lectureship at Cavendish Laboratory and also assisted Rutherford in his research. What happens if the nucleus of an atom of an element is bombarded with high energy alpha particles? Can some new element be found out by doing so? He got down to solving these mysteries. He also wanted to know the structure and size of the nucleus. In 1922, Rutherford and Chadwick discovered ‘proton’ when they bombarded alpha particles on nitrogen nucleus. In 1925, Chadwick married Eileen Stuart Brown of Liverpool. The same year he was appointed assistant director at the laboratory.

In 1920, Scientist Williams Hawkins had predicted the presence of a neutral particle in a nucleus. Many years later, Chadwick discovered this particle called the neutron. For this, Chadwick was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1935. During the same year, he resigned from Cambridge due to different of opinion with Rutherford on building a new device called cyclotron. He then joined Lavon Jones Institute in Liverpool University as Professor and built the first cyclotron in UK. In the wake of World War II in 1939, it was decided to bring both British Atomic Project and America’s Project at Manhattan together. In 1941, as part of the British Project, he joined the Tube Alloys Project. Two years later, he went to America, He became the scientific advisor to the American-British-Canadian Policy Committee at Oakridge. He was also associated with Robert Oppenheimer’s team working at Los Alamos, New Mexico, USA. This team was working to produce an atomic bomb to end the war.

July 16, 1945 was set for the test of the atomic bomb. The bomb was planet on a 32 ton 100 feet tower erected at Gyro Hill- Alamogordo air base in the desert 120 miles southeast of Albuquerque, New Mexico. At 5.30 in the morning, at a control room, 9 miles (14.5 kms) away from the site, in the presence of about 100 scientists a robot pressed the button. An immense fireball rose in the air. The blast was so loud that it was heard 450 miles away in Taxas. The smoke covered the area of 7 miles. The tower has melted with the heat energy produced. The test was declared successful and the scientist’s job was over. On August 6, 1945, the first atom bomb was dropped on the Japanese city of Hiroshima. In a short while, around 6000 people were killed, 40000 were rendered blind and 20000 gradually became the victims. The entire city had turned into a big graveyard. The second atom bomb was dropped on Nagasaki on August 9, 1945. Japan immediately surrendered and World War II came to and end.

Many atomic scientists believe that such use can only cause mass destruction and unhappiness. Scientists believe that this demon can be tamed and used constructively, to make life happy and prosperous in this world. By 1945, Chadwick was known all over the world as an extraordinary, cultured and self-possessed man. He was also known as a calm, composed and selfless scientist. The British government conferred knighthood on him and appointed him the National Science Advisor. He also served as the British representative to the American Atomic Energy Commission.

Besides his being awarded the Nobel Prize in 1935 for the discovery of the neutron, many international universities and scientific institution honoured him. In 1946, he received the Merit Medal of the USA. In 1950, the Royal Society of England conferred on him the Copley Medal. Franklin Institute, Philadelphia awarded him the Franklin Award. The American Physics Society and other reputed institutions offered him honorary membership. Since 1957 he was associated with the United Kingdom Atomic Energy Institute as part-time member.

Many reputed science periodicals and journals published his articles and research papers. He also wrote on radiation in several magazines and reputed newspapers. These were very informative and useful for scientists, science teachers and the public, at large. In 1930, in collaboration with Lord Rutherford and Sir Charles Ellis he wrote a reference book titled ‘Rays Emanating from Radioactive Substances’. The revised edition was published in 1933. On July 24, 1974, at Cambridge, Cambridgeshire, England, this great scientist passed away at 84. May his invaluable contributions be used for constructive purposes in this world. It is only the future that can reveal whether this discovery of nuclear energy would be beneficial or detrimental to the world.

Scientist James Chadwick photo

Lord Ernest Rutherford (1871-1937)

Ernest Rutherford was born on August 30, 1871 in the southern island of Nelson, in New Zealand. His parents belonged to the Scottish farming community of England and had migrated to New Zealand in 1842. They were cultured and well educated. In 1889, Ernest won a scholarship to Nelson College, a secondary school, where he was a popular boy. Another scholarship allowed him to enroll in Canterbury College, from where he graduated with a BA in 1892 and an MA in 1893 with first-class honours in mathematics and physics.

In 1895, Cambridge University announced scholarships for deserving students of British Commonwealth countries. This was a big break. Rutherford joined Cavendish Laboratory and started research. He was fortunate enough to get guidance from a genius like J J Thomson. It was the time when the sensational discovery of X-rays was just announced. This inspired Rutherford to work on it. Later on, he was attracted towards radioactivity. Thomson invited him to conduct research on the effects of X-rays on gases. Rutherford accepted the challenge happily and began the research. Thomson was already a world-renowned physicist and his assistant Rutherford was a brilliant researcher. Thomson considered Rutherford his best and most talented student. Rutherford concentrated on Becquerel’s discovery of some mysterious and unknown rays. He found out that just as X-rays ionize the gases, these unknown rays (radioactive rays) ionize the gases.

Meanwhile, a new post of professor of physics was created at McGill University at Montreal, in Canada. Thomson could not think of a better choice than Rutherford for the post. He inspired Rutherford to join the place. Rutherford was reluctant to leave a reputed place like Cavendish Laboratory, but to satisfy his guide’s desire he left for Canada in 1898. Here, he studied Becquerel rays under the effect of electric and magnetic fields. He made a wonderful discovery that these rays consisted of three types of rays, alpha, beta and gamma rays. He also succeeded in identifying two types: The radioactive rays that could be blocked by a thick paper were alpha rays (positively charged) and the ones that could be blocked by thin aluminium foil were beta rays. Beta rays were negatively charged electrons. Besides, he came to know that gamma rays were very powerful like X-rays. Here, he got an opportunity to work with the great English chemist Frederick Soddy (Nobel Prize winner for Chemistry in 1921). Rutherford and Soddy then investigated three groups of radioactive elements-radium, thorium and actinium. They concluded in 1902 that radioactivity was a process in which atoms of one element spontaneously disintegrated into atoms of an entirely different element, which also were radioactive. This interpretation was opposed by many chemists who held firmly to the concept of the indestructibility of matter; the suggestion that some atoms could tear themselves apart to form entirely different kinds of matter was to them a remnant of medieval alchemy.

In 1907, Rutherford got an opportunity to return to England. There was a vacancy worth his caliber at Manchester University. He joined here and continued research in radioactivity. In 1908, Rutherford was awarded the Nobel Prize for Chemistry for his research on radioactivity and nucleus of the atom, though he was a well-known professor of physics. The British government knighted him and he became Lord Rutherford of Nelson. He was thus honoured for his outstanding contribution in scientific research.

Another favourite student of J J Thomson, C T R Wilson was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1927 for his invention of the cloud chamber named after him. Rutherford used this equipment to study alpha rays more closely. He carried out many experiments on scattering of alpha particles by this foils of metals. On the basis of his experimental results, he announced in 1911 that the nucleus of an atom contained all the positive charge, which caused the alpha particles to divert their path as they approached the nucleus. Rutherford was then hailed as the discoverer of proton, the positively charged particle in the atom. It was Rutherford who discovered that an atom had a dense and massive positively-charged nucleus with the light negatively-charged electrons revolving around it. The simplest and lightest atom was that of hydrogen, with only one electron. In 1919, Rutherford proposed that the positively charged particle in the nucleus of hydrogen atom is a proton. These particles are present in the nuclei of all elements. The mass of a proton is 1836 times more than that of an electron. Like an electron, proton is also an elementary particle. Though proton is quite heavy than electron the electrical charge on both is equal but of opposite types. The mass of a proton is 1.6726231 X 10 -27 kg and proton’s electrical charge is 1.602.X 10 -19 coulomb.

Rutherford’s celebrated students include Henri Moseley and Niels Bohr. It was thanks to the joint efforts of Rutherford and Bohr that the clear structure of the stom emerged. In 1919, Rutherford was appointed the director of Cambridge University and chairman of Cavendish Laboratory. This was a memorable day for Rutherford as he had succeeded his guide J J Thomson. Thomson’s another student James Chadwick discovered neutron in 1932, though Rutherford had predicted the existence of such a particle long before. The ‘Father of Proton’, researcher of radioactivity, Rutherford died in 1937. He published about 80 research papers, winning respect, honour and medals, aptly to be called Lord Ernest Rutherford of Nelson.

John Logie Baird

The inventor of the television, John Logie Baird was born on August 13, 1888, at a hamlet Helensburgh, Dunbarton, near Glasgow, Scotland. Son of a Scottish engineer, he became the first man to televise pictures of objects in motion. The Youngest in the family, John was of weak constitution and often remained ill, especially afflicted with cold. This affected his study. He did not have any particular interest in reading. His only interest was photography. He was a member of his school photography club. Boys took photographs all by themselves. The club held a monthly competition wherein the best photograph among those clicked by the students was awarded a prize.

John had another interest too. He conducted experiments using electric wires. He had a particular interest in telephone. He had even linked a telephone line from his home to his friend’s house at some distance and both would talk for hours on this indigenous phone line. On one particular stormy night the wires broke off, and got tangled and coiled around the neck of passerby. Luckily, the man was saved, but John got the scolding of his life and thus ended this saga. As he grew up, his electrical experiments increased. Once, he thought of creating diamonds. He thought out a formula and collected the required material, some of it explosive in nature. But the volatile explosive material suddenly caught fire resulting in a blast. Though he was saved, he vowed never to do such dangerous experiments.

With a view to be an engineer, Baird took up a job at an electricity company. He realized that he had to earn his bread. But he was not much comfortable at his work. One day he was so severely struck by bad cold that he was confined to his bed. To keep himself warm, he wrapped papers on his feet. It worked. This triggered him of an idea to make socks. He brought necessary things the next morning, dyed the cotton yarn in various colours and made colourful socks. He went to a shopkeeper and showed his creation. The shopkeeper bought all the socks and asked him to supply more. Soon, Glasgow dwellers were using this innovative creation of Baird. Later, he employed people for mass production of socks.

He was once again down with severe cold and illness. The doctor advised him to stay at a place with warmer climate. He decided to go to West Indies. He was happy with the prospect of the extended market for socks. But the shopkeepers in West Indies did not show any interest in his socks. He was unable to sell even a single pair of socks. His ever creative mind thought of something else. West Indies had many orchards of lemon, orange and sugar cane. He thought of pickle factory and soon discovered to his horror that the sugar and the sweet aroma of pickles attracted some poisonous insects in the area. They even bit Baird. His health further deteriorated and he returned to London.

The cold climate of London did not suit him as it was very cold there and the doctor advised him to move near the seashore. This worked. On a pleasant evening, while he was taking a stroll on the beach, he heard a song on radio playing at a nearby hotel. Suddenly it struck him: sound could travel far through waves. He wondered if it was possible to send visuals the same way. He started working on this concept. He collected the required material: wire, and empty trunk, batteries, empty cookie tins, bicycle headlight, candle, etc. He worked continuously for days experimenting on the contraption. Finally, he could produce a blurred picture on a screen in his room. Now, he worked hard to obtain a clearer picture. When his landlord came to know about his experiments, he threw him out. But he was undeterred. He returned to London and worked even more enthusiastically. After many days, he succeeded in producing clear images on the screen. Coming to know the experiment and its results, people started dropping at his residence, taking keen interest in his work. Once, Baird made a boy stand in one room and showed his image on a screen in another room. He could even show the movements of the boy clearly on the screen. He was extremely delighted with his success.

He invited scientists and journalists for a demonstration. They appreciated his work and congratulation him for his invaluable invention. Soon, the world knew about Baird and his invention. Initially, the pictures appeared blurred, but soon they became clear. He even succeeded in relaying colored pictures. Now, he started relaying opera and theatre on his television. He even started work on developing a television set. Despite employing many people he was unable to meet the public demand. In fact, he had envisioned a television station on the lines of a radio station. But commencement of World War II marred his plans. Besides, his relay station was also bombarded and destroyed. Meanwhile, he progressed towards the broadcast of colour pictures.

Once again he was struck by a bout of severe cold. This time it was life threatening. He left the experiments midway and returned home. On June 14, 1946, at Bexhill – on-Sea, Sussex, England, this after presenting the world with the wonderful gift – television, the 58 year old John Logie Baird bid adieu.

Irving Langmuir (1881 – 1957)

Irving Langmuir was born on Jan. 31, 1881 in Brooklyn, New York, USA. His elder brother Arthur played an important role in Irving’s progress. When Irving was nine years old, to sustain his interest in science, Arthur thought of setting up a small laboratory for him. At the age of 11, Irving joined school in Brooklyn. Within a year, his father was transferred to Paris and Irving had to be admitted at a French boarding house in Paris. He loved the school as he could spend as much time in the laboratory as he wanted to. When his father was transferred back to America, he took admission at Pret Institute of Brooklyn where Arthur was an instructor. Besides, he worked in a factory as a chemist. Irving started living at his brother’s place then.

Under such favorable environment he was able to gain more knowledge. He excelled in chemistry and calculus. He used to read all available science magazines and books. Through he lost his father at 17, he never faced any financial problem. In 1899, at the age of 18, Irving got admission in Columbia College. Here, students were given special training related to mine industry. Irving received training as a metallurgical engineer. For further studies, he again went to Europe to study at Gottingen University, Germany for three years. On completion of his studies, Irving was appointed as professor at the Technical Institute in New Jersey. He had a few other offers, but preferred this institute as he would have the freedom and additional time for conducting research.

During the summer vacation of 1909, he got an excellent opportunity to carry out research. A newly established laboratory at New York invited Langmuir for research in the vacation batches and he happily accepted it. Here, he got an opportunity to study tungsten wire used in the electric light bulb. This wire had a short life span as it would burn out very fast. Langmuir conducted research to find the reason behind it. The vacation came to an end, yet he was unable to complete his research. He was requested to continue at the institute as a staff member till the research was over. He accepted the invitation and also got the permission to conduct research on other independent projects simultaneously. Here, he proposed the concept of ‘Pure Research’ which was readily accepted. The vice president in charge of research at the General Electric Laboratory, Willis Rodney Whitney was a visionary. He recognized the importance of Langmuir’s research and readily cooperated.

Langmuir devised a special mercury vapour pump, which could suck out all the air from a bulb, producing a high vacuum in it. He also discovered that some inert gases like argon did react with hot tungsten. The tungsten wire could now be used for longer time. If inert gases like nitrogen or argon were vacuum packed in a tungsten wire bulb, its life could be further extended. This discovery was beneficial to both, the bulb manufacturing companies and the customers. During the same priod Langmuir announced another invention-atomic hydrogen torch. He observed that at a very high temperature, i.e. at the melting point of the tungsten wire, hydrogen atoms got separated (fission). Moreover, when these atoms were reunited (fusion), energy was released. Based on this principle, Langmuir developed the atomic hydrogen torch in 1927. One could weld metal at the temperature of 6000 C with this torch which made welding job comparatively easy.

Even after such a great success, Langmuir was not satisfied. Now, he wanted to know why some elements like argon and helium were inert, while elements like hydrogen and chlorine were active. He began study of the structure of an atom. He possessed sound knowledge of chemistry, physics and mathematics. The atomic number of hydrogen is one. One electron revolves around its nucleus and this orbit is incomplete. The atomic number of helium is two and two electrons revolve around its nucleus in an orbit and the orbit is complete. Neon, the gas on which Langmuir had worked a lot, was an inactive or inert gas. It’s atomic number is ten. It has two electrons revolving in an orbit closer to the nucleus and eight electrons revolving in an orbit away from the nucleus. Neon is inert. The atomic number of Chlorine is seventeen. Out of seventeen electrons two revolve in the first orbit, eight revolve in the second orbit and the remaining seven revolve in the third orbit. The third orbit is incomplete. Chlorine is active because it tends to accept an electron to complete its outer orbit. Atoms of hydrogen and chlorine can share one electron from their outermost orbit. This is the reason why hydrogen easily combines with chlorine to produce hydrochloric acid. Langmuir’s findings about chemical activity were accepted all over the world. He was awarded the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1932. He was the first to use the terms electrovalence and covalence.

He studied various other aspects. He studied certain chemicals for their colours and other external features, a study known as surface chemistry. His studies led to answers to certain basic questions like why certain substances dissolve in water and others do not, why some atoms float on the surface while others sink. His study helped in understanding of some features of catalysis. The General Electric Company appreciated Langmuir’s work and appointed his Vice-chairman of the company. He would travel abroad during the summer vacations with his family. At work, he spent every moment in research. Thereafter, he also carried out research on the Weather and artificial rain. He would create artificial rain in a limited area by sprinkling silver iodide over the clouds.

He retired in 1951, but continued as a guide and adviser to the company as well as to the government. He died in 1957. He spent all his life for the world of science. Apart from the Nobel Prize, he was awarded and conferred upon several other prizes and honours by many scientific institutions.

Guglielmo Marconi (1874 – 1937)

Guglielmo Marconi was an Italian scientist and inventor, known for his development of Marconi's law and a radio telegraph system, which served as the foundation for the establishment of numerous affiliated companies worldwide. He was born on April 25, 1874 in Bologna, Italy. He belonged to an affluent and cultured family, which provided him with the best of education. Marconi was a talented and polite child. Right since school days he carried out experiments and he preferred electrical experiments the most. He was allotted a room in his house which he converted into a laboratory. The room was scattered with wires, poles and tin containers. The enthusiastic youngster spent hours in this laboratory.

It was a time, when Scottish scientist James Clerk Maxwell’s (1831-79) name was on everybody’s lips. He had put forward the unified theory of electromagnetism, and the nature and propagation of electromagnetic waves. Before him, Faraday had discovered electromagnetic waves. Before him, Faraday had discovered electromagnetic induction; a changing magnetic field could produce electricity in an electric conductor. Similarly, any change in electric field could produce a magnetic field. The electric and magnetic effects took some specific field. The electric and magnetic effects took some specific time to travel through air and vacuum. Maxwell had tried to gather information about electromagnetic waves and its propagation through mathematical equations. The speed of such waves was 1,86,000 miles (Approx. 3 lakh kilometers) per second. Such waves traveling through air or vacuum without passing through any wire were also called wireless waves.

When this discovery was being discussed in the scientific world, Marconi was just 15 years old. Once, he took his father into his small laboratory to demonstrate his experiments. He rang an electric bell fixed 15 feet away with such waves. His father appreciated his efforts saying it was a short distance and told him that he should try to cover longer distance. Morconi continued his experiments with keen interest. He hung one wire in the air and buried another wire in the ground. He sent a wireless message up to a distance of about a mile. He felt that he had achieved something remarkable, but he also felt that the people of his country were not able to recognize his genius. So Marconi left Italy and arrived in London. He consulted an officer in the department of electricity and exhibited his findings. The officer was very much impressed with the work done by this young man and promised him all help.

Encouraged by this response, he arranged for a public demonstration of his experiments on the terrace of London’s General Post Office. People applauded his innovative idea and London newspapers the next day were full of praise for this young Italian. Professor Sir Jagadish Chandra Bose (1858 – 1937) of India, However, had already experimented on production and propagation of electromagnetic waves, in 1895. Bose was appointed professor of physics at the Presidency College, Kolkata (Calcutta). He had very limited means and facilities. But he used to make his own equipment out of the scrap available in market. He even had to spend his own money on these experiments. He carried out the experiment on production and propagation of electromagnetic waves in 1884. He demonstrated his discovery in the presence of the British Governor at Town Hall, Kolkata. The waves traveled a distance of 25 meters. A London periodical published two of his research papers. In 1895, he was invited by Royal Society to London, and there he demonstrated publicly the production of electromagnetic waves relaying them through concrete walls. Thus, London had viewed these demonstrations even before Marconi showed them. Bose was invited again for demonstration in 1896, this time in the presence of great scholars including Lord Kelvin. London University awarded him the degree of Doctor of Science based on his research papers published earlier.

Jagadish Chandra, a simple man, never got his invention patented. Hence, the world did not take much notice of his important discovery. Soon, Marconi announced his invention and also secured the patent for the same. Marconi got all the credit for the invention as well as the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1909. Thus, Marconi came to be known as the pioneer of radio telegraphy. The news of this wonderful invention spread all over the world. The Government of Italy invited him to return home and promised all help required for his experiments. Marconi returned home and established a wireless station with the help of government grant. He could successfully send wireless messages to far away sailing naval war ships during the World War I. The Italian royalty also appreciated Marconi’s arrangement. This also fetched him more financial help. He could strengthen his infrastructure which resulted in longer distance propagation of the wireless waves, even across the English Channel. Marconi decided to establish a similar wireless station in Britain. He erected a 200 feet high tower. But before the station became functional, a cyclone razed the tower and other supporting poles to the ground. This did not dishearten Marconi. He decided to erect a 400 feet high tower and soon the wireless messages were transmitted in all the directions to a longer distance.

With his wireless waves, Marconi had served his motherland in World War I. Later on, he established his private and the world’s first radio station at Chelmsford. When Fleming invented the valve, radio receivers with valves were made available in the open market. And with the invention of the transistor after a few years the small transistor radio sets appeared in the market. Marconi was financially very well-off now. Many nations and scientific institutions honoured Marconi soon after he was awarded the Nobel Prize. In 1929 the king of Italy honoured Marconi and his heirs with a pride of place in the royal court. Fortunately, his father Giuseppe lived to witness all these laurels won by his son. In 1927, 53 year old Marconi married 23 year old Countess Maria. Three years later Maria gave birth to a daughter. In 1933, the Marconi couple set out on a world tour. Marconi died in 1937. We can not imagine a world without wireless today. Truly, the credit of enabling us to communicate rapidly through his invention of the wireless communication goes to none other than Marconi.

Robert Millikan (1868 – 1953)

Every graduate student of physics learns about the classic experiment- Millikan oil-drop experiment to determine the electronic charge. The inventor of the experiment, the world renowned scientist Robert Andrews Millikan, was born on March 22, 1868 at Morrison, Illinois, USA. He came from a family of less means, finance and a large family. Since childhood, he had to do odd jobs to help supplement the family income. The family condition forced all the six siblings in the house to contribute their mite or little earnings, before they could get any formal education.

In 1875, the Millikans moved to Maquoketa, in Iowa State. This small village with a population of 3000 had 13 liquor bars. The village was known for its ruffians and thugs who frequented it. Yet, they stayed here for 11 years. The entire day revolved around the same routine as there was no avenue for them. Going to the gymnasium in the morning, helping the family in domestic duties, playing baseball and then a swim in the river were the kind of activities they indulged in. All such activities ensured that the three Millikan brothers became good body-builders. There was a small village school which the brothers joined. The principal was a teacher of physics, but he was more interested in other activities than his subject. Hence, students too were not inclined towards physics. Millikan took a liking for the Greek language, literature and mathematics.

When asked at a school, “Are you ready to take up job as physics teacher?” he readily agreed out of necessity. He started burning the midnight oil to teach himself physics. Gradually, he picked up and started mastering the subject. He devoted his vacations to the study of physics. Students started attending his classes. The principal too, was pleased with the young man and offered him tutorship with a yearly remuneration of $600. In 1891, he graduated from Oberlin. He also offered his services at the local gymnasium. Meanwhile, his professor recommended him for a fellowship at Columbia University. In the fall of 1893, he was awarded special fellowship. Here, he came into contact with geniuses like Professor Rood, Woodward and Pupin. Under their able guidance coupled with his perseverance, he received his doctorate in 1895.

At that time, America was far behind Europe in theoretical and applied physics. Physicists in Europe were engaged in various researches and in chemistry new vistas opened up. The term of Millikan’s fellowship came to an end and he was not given any extension. On Pupin’s advice, he took a loan of $300 and went to Europe to be part of mainstream research. During 1895-96, he stayed in Europe. It was a time when Becquerel had discovered radioactivity and was continuing experiments in that field. This training helped Millikan to become a good researcher, able administrator and also an excellent professor.

In 1896, Professor Albert Michelson invited Millikan to join his department as assistant at Chicago University. Millikan accepted the offer despite more lucrative offers form other places. He stayed on at Chicago University for 25 years and contributed his career’s best research years. He was made professor in 1910. During his tenure the department of physics gained immense popularity and became the most important centre for study of physics in America. Now those things were moving smoothly. Millikan reduced his teaching and concentrated totally on research. He carried out the oil-drop experiment and concluded that a tiny drop of oil measured to a thousandth part of a millimeter. Earlier, J J Thomson had determined the charge of cathode particles (electrons). In 1909, he performed his famous oil-drop experiment to determine the value of the electronic charge. Millikan reanalyzed it and in 1912 he determined electronic mass with his experiments. He also verified Einstein’s photoelectric equation and obtained a precise value for the Planck’s constant were very accurate; the accuracy of which was not surpassed for several years.

Robert Millikan was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1923 for his invaluable contribution in the research on the elementary (electronic) charge and the photoelectric effect. In 1921, he left the Chicago University to join the Norman Bridge Laboratory of Physics at the California Institute of Technology, Pasadena and later, became its chairman in 1923. There, he made some initial studies of cosmic rays which were invaluable. He developed a special electroscope, which could be used for measurements on the most powerful cosmic rays. He held the post of chairman of the executive council of the institute until his retirement in 1945. It is to Millikan’s credit that American research in physics got its due recognition. He trained and guided many future researchers, including C D Anderson who discovered positron.

In 1953, at the ripe old age of 87, Millikan passed away. He was one of the scientists who brought America to the forefront of research in physics and guided a young generation of scientists.

Wilbur – Orville Wright

Wilbur Wright (1867 -1912) and Orville Wright (1871 – 1948) were two Americans who are well known for his inventing and building the world’s first successful airplane and making the first controlled, powered and sustained heavier-than-air human flight, on December 17, 1903. They are also known as the ‘Wright Brothers’, the world over. Wilbur, the elder of the two, was born on April 16, 1867 in Melville, Indiana, USA. Their father Milton Wright was an ordained minister of the Church of the United Brethren in Christ. Their mother was Susan Catherine Koerner. Milton Wright met Susan Catherine Koerner when he was training for the ministry, while she was a student at the United Brethren College in Hartsville, Indiana. In 1869, the Wright family moved to Dayton, Ohio State. They bought a small house there. Two years later, on August 19, 1871, younger brother Orville was born. After two years, their sister, Catherine was born. Their father was a priest in a local church. The Wright children did not receive any formal education, but could read and write.

Wilbur and Orville enjoyed flying kites and loved watching birds fly. They always wondered whether it was possible for human beings to do the same. In this regard, they went through many books and also collected information they could lay their hands on. Orville loved to read the newspaper. This led him to be a newsperson at the young age. At 17, he independently published his newspaper. He was the writer, editor and printer of this newspaper. Soon it became quite popular and he asked Wilbur to join him as busy, but got ample opportunity to go through reading materials. They had a dream and it was to soar in the sky. Meanwhile, their mother Susan passed away in 1889. In 1890, they came across the news of a German named Otto Lilienthal who had flown a glider. A glider has no engine, but the pilot balanced the aircraft by changing positions. This news encouraged the Wright Brothers to pursue making of their dream machine.

In 1892, the brothers opened a bicycle shop. Profits from the print shop and the bicycle shop eventually were to fund the Wright brothers’ aeronautical experiments. Through trial and error they succeeded in their experiments and formed the basic principles of flying. They created a small air-tunnel in their bicycle store. They had developed more than 100 types of aircrafts wings. They checked each of them and selected the best pair. They also observed that the birds controlled their movements in air by bending the farthest ends of their wings. So, they changed their wing design to aileron. They built their first glider and flew it as per their expectations. Thereafter, they built a lightweight four-cylinder, petrol driven engine with 12 horsepower. They wrapped velvet over a two-wing wooden structure and built an aircraft with 43 feet (approximately 9.3 metres) long wings.

The brothers were now confident of their success. They invited people to witness the first flight. They had organized the event at Kitty Hawk, near the seashore. They had arranged wooden planks under the aircraft. Orville took his seat in the cockpit. Wilbur pushed the aircraft on the planks. Soon, the aircraft took off into the air. It flew 100 feet high for 12 seconds and then safely returned to ground. It was Wilbur Wright’s turn now. This time, the aircraft went higher up to 812 feet and stayed in air for 59 seconds. The Wright Brothers had realized their dream. Still, a lot more was needed to be done. They decided to make an aircraft with a more powerful engine. To celebrate their success, the brother joined the family for Christmas. Their father’s blessings spurred them further. They continued their experiments and made that could fly up to one and half kilometers. They closed down the bicycle store and concentrated totally on their dream machine. It was also a time when similar experiments were being performed in Europe. Wilbur Wright visited France and impressed Frenchmen with his skills. He even took a government officer along for a ride. The ride lasted for an hour and four minutes. Meanwhile, Orville continued his efforts in America. He also took the locals on trips performing experiments. He once flew an army officer. Unfortunately, the aircraft crashed and the army officer was killed. Orville sustained some injuries.

The Wright Brothers had become famous all over the world. A company contracted them to make aircraft. With money pouring in, they had become rich and famous. December 17, 1903 was a memorable day for the Wright Brothers at 10.35 a.m. they took off on their maiden flight. It became the most memorable day of their lives when they wrote their names in history. The event was celebrated the world over. They had become rich and prosperous, but they were not content. Business did not hold them back. They wanted to experiment more. They restarted their research. Meanwhile, Wilbur died of typhoid on May 30, 1912. Around the same time the house they were building was complete. The grieving family had to move in without Wilbur. On April 3, 1917, their father passed away at the age of 89. Orville Wright was now president of the company. He had become an expert in flying aircraft. He died on January 30, 1948, at the age of 77, in a Dayton hospital. The Wright Brothers became the first human beings to take to wings and because of their persistent efforts reached their goal and the world honoured them with many awards.

The Wright Brothers Photo

Heinrich Rudolf Hertz (1857 – 1894)

Heinrich Rudolph Hertz was born on February 22, 1857, in a well-to-do family in Hamburg, Germany. His parents began his education with the intention of shaping his career in architecture and engineering. But soon they realized his interest in pure science and research. He was a curious child with a habit of observing and learning about new ideas and things. Heinrich joined Berlin University, where a person of rare intelligence, versatility and multifaceted personality – Professor Hermann Von Helmholtz, taught various subjects like physiology, anatomy, physics and mathematics.

On the basis of his researches in physics, he conducted research in measurement of the speed of the throbbing of arteries. He produced electromagnetic waves in the laboratory and analysed their wavelength and speed. He also conducted analysis of oscillation and speed. He also conducted analysis of oscillation and speed of sound waves, principles of rhythm in music, gave a new statement on the conservation of energy; principles of the colour spectrum, etc. Besides, he also invented the ophthalmo-scope, to check eye diseases. This equipment is used even today for observation and correct diagnosis of the eye diseases.

Hertz learnt a lot under the able guidance of Helmholtz. At the same time, Helmholtz also realized that he had a very talented pupil in Hertz. Both reciprocated each other with satisfaction. Hertz graduated in 1880 and was soon appointed as his deputy by Helmholtz in his research work in physics.

In 1883, he was appointed professor of physics at Kiel in Northern Germany. He joined it and worked on Maxwell’s electromagnetic theory. The theory of electromagnetism was first published in the form of an essay in 1865. Many of the present day advancements in science are based on this theory. Hertz’s initiation into research brought him fame and provided him a new direction in research. He now concentrated on the experimental study of implication thought out the maxwell’s mathematical equations. He wondered if electromagnetic waves could also travel like light waves. He also began to visualize on the experiments that could be conducted on the subject. Meanwhile, he joined Karlsruhe Polytechnic as professor of physics. Now he thought of conducting research on the production and propagation of electromagnetic waves. He wondered how much time it would take to propagate such waves from one place to another and how to accurately measure such a small interval of time?

Heinrich constructed the world’s first radio transmitter and radio receiver for the purpose, generating radio waves. Prior to this no one had heard about it. Hertz’s equipment later laid the foundation for invention of the modern radio, radar and television. He conducted his experiments in a small 10m X 10m room. A wave traveling from one end to the other and back covered a distance of 20 meters. It was very difficult to measure the time taken by the wave to cover this distance as it was expected to be less than one microsecond. A brilliant idea struck him – a Leyden jar could be used for the pupose. A Leyden Jar (a type of capacitor) could be used as an instrument to measure time because the electric discharge that took place between two points was a very fast process. Another thought that struck him was that there could be some conductor, which could produce electric discharge.

Hertz demonstrated the production and propagation of radio waves (electromagnetic waves of long wavelength). Next, he wanted to prove that however brief, a wave took specific time to another point. For this he once again returned to sound waves and dwelt on Helmholtz’s work. Waves originating from the same source but reaching destination by separated paths could either be weak or very powerful. In terms of frequently modulation one can call them constructive or destructive. As the receiver moves from one point to the other, the vibration will cease at a certain nodal point which in scientific terminology is called destructive interference. The distance between two such points is equal to half the wavelength. Hertz succeeded in measuring the wavelength of an electromagnetic radiation using the phenomenon of interference.

Thereafter, Hertz studied many properties of the electromagnetic waves: like the radiations of light, these electromagnetic waves can be focused, distorted, reflected, refracted, polarized, etc. Similarly, he also measured the speed of the electromagnetic waves, which equaled the speed of light, i.e. 3 X 108 metre/second. Thus, through a series of experiments Hertz proved that the electromagnetic waves were quite similar to light waves. “My experiments have proved the solidarity of Maxwell’s doctrines.” He would say this in all modesty.

In 1889, at a meeting held at Heidelberg, the Association for the advancement of Natural Sciences described and discussed Hertz’s experiments and findings. Researchers and scientists present at the meeting lauded his efforts. At the age of 32, Hertz was appointed professor of physics at the University of Bonn. Hertz met an untimely death, due to blood poisoning, at the age of 37 in 1894. The SI unit of frequency, the Hetz (Hz), is named after him.

Sir J J Thomson (1856- 1940)

Sir Joseph John Thomson was a British physicist and Nobel laureate. He is well known for the discovery of the electron and of isotopes and also the invention of the mass spectrometer. He was awarded with Nobel Prize in Physics in 1906 for the discovery of the electron and for his work on the conduction of electricity in gases. Thomson was born on December 18, 1856 at Cheetham Hill near the industrial city of Manchester in England. His father sold rare books as a bookseller. This was their traditional family business. There was no scientific background at home, except his uncle who had a casual interest in meteorology and horticulture.

Since childhood days Joseph had the habit of reading. But, life surrounded by books fueled his interest in reading. His family members encouraged him to take up engineering seeing his interest and sincere efforts at study. At the age of 14 he was admitted to Owens College, Manchester. Today this institution is famous as Victoria University of Manchester. Two Years after he joined the college his father passed away. His relatives took up the responsibility of his education. Fortunately, the John Dalton Scholarship also came his way, which further helped his education.

At the age of 20, Thomson successfully completed his graduation in engineering and entered Trinity College, Combridge University on scholarship. The college was a favourite one among students interested in mathematics and science. A competitive examination called ‘Mathematics Tripos’ was conducted here. Thomson appeared for the examination and scored high grades. Like James Clerk Maxwell, he too stood second. Again, following Maxwell’s footsteps, he moved from mathematics to theoretical physics. Though he was not very good at performing experiments, he never underestimated the importance of it. In 1881, at the age of 24, he wrote a research paper, which gives us some idea about Einstein’s theories. In the paper he explained that energy and matter maintain a balance in nature. After obtaining his degree, he also received the fellowship at Trinity. He started research work at the renowned Cavendish Laboratory.

In 1884, the head of the Cavendish Laboratory, Lord Rayleigh decided to relinquish his post and named the 28 year old J J Thomson as his successor. This created uproar. Though there was no doubt about his caliber, his young age caused the abashment. But Thomson lived up to the expectations and successfully managed the affairs of the institution for the next 34 years. He led the institution to become one of the best research institutions in the world. It was a happy coincidence that at the institution where he conducted research, he met his better half. Thomson believed that women could not be good researchers. So, when Rose Paget, a student, approached him with some questions, he thought that she could not follow anything. They married in 1890 and two years later, Rose gave birth to their first child, who later became the famous scientist George Paget Thomson (G P Thomson). In the presence of 80 year old J J Thomson, his son was conferred the Nobel Prize for physics in 1937. G.P. Thomson was awarded the prize for his research on the demonstration of wave nature of electrons.

In 1887, Thomson discovered a very minute particle-electron, and came to be known as the ‘Father of Electron’. With this discovery he proved electrical characteristic property of matter. It was a time when extensive study of cathode rays was on. He stated that cathode rays consisted of electrically charged particles. Some scientists believed that cathode rays and electrically charged particles were totally different entities. But it was equally true that when the cathode rays collided with glass, they produced glow. An electrically charged particle or electron cannot be seen with naked eyes. Thomson also proved the fact that cathode rays deflected in presence of magnetic field, thus proving that cathode rays contained negatively charged particles. His critics argued that mere deflection of cathode rays in presence of magnetic field did not prove that the electrons were negatively charged. Thomson created better vacuum in the cathode ray tube to prove that the cathode rays deflected only due to magnetic and electric fields. He insisted that cathode rays were not just rays but the steam of electrons.

Thomson calculated the velocity of rays by balancing the opposing deflections caused by magnetic and electric fields. Knowing this velocity and using a deflection from one of the fields, he was able to determine the ratio of electric charge (e) to mass (m) if the cathode rays. He also measured the weight of an electron and proved that it was 2000 times lighter in weight that hydrogen atom. He also determined that the velocity of an electron to be 1, 60,000 miles per second.

J J Thomson’s basic research, led to the invention and usage of Television in our day-to-day life. TV is a cathode ray tube where electrons get deflected due to the effect of electric and magnetic fields. Thomson did the same, but none believed him way back in 1897. He even thought of photographing electron. He assigned the task to his student CTR Wilson, who in 1911, devised a method to observe tracks of charged particles by constructing what is now known as Wilson cloud chamber. For his wonderful invention, CTR Wilson was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1927. All such research established the existence of an electron and gave birth to a new science called electronics. With the end of World War I, Thomson gave up the directorship of Cavendish Laboratory to be the chairman of Trinity College. One of his colleague and a friend, Lord Eanest Rutherford, was handed over the charge of Cavendish Laboratory.

Thomson was honoured with the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1906 for his research in electrical conductivity of gases. The British Government knighted him. Truly, he was a talented teacher, a researcher of the highest order, one who provided excellent leadership to young scientists. Eight of his students were recipients of the Nobel Prize. Sir J J Thomson was known as the ‘Man who split atom’. He also wrote several high quality books for students. Sir J J Thomson, the great scientist, died at the ripe old age of 84 in1940.

Albert Michelson (1852 – 1931)

Albert Abraham Michelson was an American physicist known for his work on the measurement of the speed of light and especially for the Michelson-Morley experiment. He was the first American to win a Nobel Prize for Physics (1907). Albert Michelson was born on December 19, 1852, to a German Jewish couple in Strelno (now Strzelno), Prussia (presently in Poland). In 1848, the Liberals in Germany advocated equality in taxes and freedom of speech. But by the time of Albert’s birth it was almost clear to them that the changing political scenario would make it difficult for them to live in Germany. And they started leaving the country to safer places. Some of them came to America and among them were the Michelsons who reached New York in 1854. Albert was just two years old then.

After a while, they sailed to the western shore and reached California. By 1849, California had acquired the reputation of the promised land of gold. Albert’s father, Samuel Michelson owned a small dry-fruit shop in Cleaver’s country. Albert received primary education in the local school. For high school, he was sent to San Francisco. He was a bright student. Besides mathematics and science, he was well-versed in handling mechanical devices. For his adroitness, he was given charge of the scientific equipment in the school laboratory. He was paid $ 3 per month for his work.

In 1868, when Albert turned 16, his family moved to Verginia in Neveda State. Here silver mining was a major activity at that time. A year after they came here, his brother Charles was born, followed by the birth of his sister Mariam the next year. Charles went on to earn name as the publicity director of the Democratic Party during American President Franklin D Roosevelt’s regime. Albert graduated from the Naval Academy in 1873. As per Academy rules, he served in the American Navy as ‘assignee’ for two years. On completion of duty, he was called back at the academy and appointed as teacher of physics and chemistry. During this time he developed an interest in the study of light especially the various techniques to measure the speed of light, which sustained throughout his life.

Using Foucault’s method of revolving mirrors, Michelson developed his unique technique to measure the speed of light. With some lens available in his laboratory besides spending $ 10, he developed his technique. He could accurately measure the speed of light in the vicinity of 500 feet. In 1878, his first research paper was published in the American Journal of Science. It was titled ‘Measuring the Velocity of Light’. Using this new technique, the speed of light was found to be 1, 86,508 miles/second.

Thereafter, he concentrated on the colours seen in a soap bubble. He studied the refraction in the surface area of the bubble. He explained that if the layer of soap film has half the wavelength of light, the two waves do not interfere and hence, do not get destroyed. Sir Isaac Newton too had studied the studied the colours in bubble. But he did not believe in the arguments regarding the wavelength of light, so could not put forth any explanation for it.

It was known then that if the thickness of the soap film is known the speed of light can be determined. But it was a difficult task. In 1887, Michelson designed an instrument that made him world famous. This device was called ‘Michelson’ Interferometer’. Even today in colleges’ students of physics use this device to measure the wavelength of light. Here, a partially silvered glass plate divides a light ray into two parts and two such waves coming form different directions would get refracted and interfere to form straight fringes under certain conditions, making it easier to measure the wavelength.

A mystery that puzzled scientists then was whether light waves need a medium to travel like sound waves. How does light travel from the Sun to the Earth? Scientists thought of a substance called ether, but were not sure about it. Michelson and his assistant Morley performed the experiment to test the ether hypothesis. At that time Michelson was professor of physics at the school of Applied Sciences in Cleveland. He later moved to Clarke University and in 1892 joined Chicago University as professor of physics and head of the department. Here, he could concentrate more on research, as his lectures were limited. He was a great disciplinarian. He always assessed his findings. Probably this could be the reason he could not mix freely with his students like Einstein or Fleming. But he had a tender heart and music was his only hobby. He was a good violinist and taught violin to two of his six children from two marriages.

The world of science always held Michelson in high esteem. Several institutions honoured him. He was honoured with the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1907, the first American to receive the award. Eleven universities all over the world conferred on him honorary doctorates. London’s Royal Society awarded him the Rumford Medal. He was also honoured with the Grand Prize in Paris and Exposition Prize in Rome. In 1892, the International Bureau for Weights and Measurements in Paris honoured him by awarding him an honorary Membership.

In 1926, Michelson performed a new experiment to measure the speed of light. In this experiment too he used Foucault’s principle of revolving mirrors. For this a special centre was set up on Mount Wilson in California. Exactly 22 miles, i.e. about 35 kms away on Mt San Antonio, another mirror was placed. Then light waves were sent from Mt Wilson. At the same time mirrors started revolving. The light wave traveled to Mt San Antonio, got reflected from the revolving mirrors and returned to Mt Wilson. During this period the mirror had completed a sixth of its revolution. Thus, he once again proved his technique to measure the speed of light. Michelson worked till his last breath. This great scientist died due to brain hemorrhage at the age of 79 on May 9, 1931.