Enrico Fermi (1901- 1954)

Enrico Fermi was a famous Italian physicist particularly known for his work on the development of the first nuclear reactor, Chicago Pile-1, and for his contributions to the development of quantum theory, nuclear and particle physics, and statistical mechanics. He was awarded with Nobel Prize in 1938 for "his discovery of new radioactive elements produced by neutron irradiation, and for the discovery of nuclear reactions brought about by slow neutrons."

Enrico Alberto Fermi was born in Rome, the capital of Italy, on September 29, 1901. His father, Alberto Fermi had no formal education, but with sheer hard work and sincerity he had reached the post of a regional head of the railroad. Enrico’s mother was a primary school teacher. Enrico was the youngest child among three Fermi children born in three consecutive years. He was an energetic and imaginative student prodigy in high school and decided to become a physicist. His mother did not keep well at the time of his birth. So, he was sent to the countryside. He returned after three years to meet his elder brother and they got along very well. They made many toys, including various models of airplanes and battery driven cars.

When Enrico was 14, his elder brother met an untimely death. This incident saddened him. It was a shock to his mother, who could not bear this loss. Shy and reserved, Enrico could not imagine a life without his elder brother. However, his elder brother’s classmate Enrico Persico came in to fill the void. Not only their names, they also shared interests and views. They started working together on various experiments. Together they developed the theory of gyroscope based on the lines of force of the earth’s magnetic field.

In 1918, at the age of 17, he entered the college, which is associated with the University of Pisa. He wrote a detailed essay on vibrating fibers which earned him a scholarship. Now, he could easily provide for his education. There, he earned his doctorate at the age of 21 with a thesis on research on X-rays. After a short visit in Rome, Fermi left for Germany with a fellowship from the Italian Ministry of Public Instruction to study at the whose contributions to quantum mechanics were part of the knowledge prerequisite to Fermi’s later work.

In 1926, his paper on the behavior of a perfect, hypothetical gas impressed the physics department of the University of Rome, which invited him to join as a professor of theoretical physics. Within a short time, Fermi brought together a new group of physicists, all of them in their early 20s. In 1926, he developed a statistical method for predicting the characteristics of electrons according to Pauli’s exclusion principle, which suggests that there cannot be more than one subatomic particle that can be described in the same way. The particles which follow Fermi Statistics are called fermions. Protons, electrons and neutrons are fermions.

Here, he met a Jewish student who later became his life-partner. He married Laura Capone in 1928 by whom he had two children, Nella in 1931 and Giulio in 1936. His research work had geared up. More than 30 of his research papers in various fields were published by 1927. Impressed with his work, the Royal Academy of Itlay in 1929, made him the youngest member of the academy. The Italian government conferred on him the title of ‘His Execellency’ and gave him a special dress reserved for the lords, good income and a sword to carry at royal functions. His theoretical work at the University of Rome was of vital importance, but fresh discoveries prompted Fermi to turn to experimental physics. In 1932, the existence of neutron, a neutral particle was discovered by Sir James Chadwick at Cambridge University. The nucleus of an atom consists of protons and neutrons. In 1933, Fermi put forward the theory of beta decay in which a neutron becomes a proton by emitting an electron and antineutrino.

In 1934, Frederic and Irene Joliot-Curie in France were the first to produce artificial radioactivity by bombarding elements with alpha particles, which are emitted as positively charged helium nuclei from polonium. Inspired by this work, Fermi thought of an idea of inducing artificial radioactivity by another method using neutrons obtained from radioactivity beryllium, but reducing their speed. Passing them through paraffin, he found the slow neutrons were especially effective in producing radioactive isotopes. He used this method successfully on a series of elements. When he used uranium (atomic number 92) as the target of neutron bombardment, however, he obtained radioactive substances that could not be identified.

Fermi’s colleagues were inclined to believe that he had actually made a new, transuranic element of atomic number 93; that is, during bombardment, the nucleus of uranium had captured a neutron, thus increasing its mass number followed beta decay to give the element with atomic number 93. Fermi did not make this claim, for he was not certain what had occurred; indeed, he was unaware that he was on the edge of a magnificent discovery the world was unaware of. He modestly observed years later, “We did not have enough imagination to think that a different process of disintegration might occur in uranium than in any other element. Moreover, we did not know enough chemistry to separate the products from one another.” One of his assistants commented that “God, for his own inscrutable ends, made everyone blind to the phenomenon of atomic fission.”

Before this, the Fermis went on a lecture tour round the world. They went to Michigan University for a lecture series in 1930. In 1934, they visited Brazil and Argentina. Meanwhile, the political scene in Italy was changing drastically, Hitler and the Nazis in Germany and Mussolini and the Fascisits in Itlay had become all powerful. The anti-Jewish slogans on the wall disturbed Fermi because his wife was a Jew.

In December 1938, Fermi was invited to Sweden for receiving the Nobel Prize in Physics. He took permission for himself, wife, two children and their governess to visit Sweden. Sensing the tricky political situation in Italy, he decided to go directly to New York instead of Italy. He had already secured a post at Columbia University. Thus, he continued his work in America.

Meanwhile, in 1938, three German scientists repeated some of Fermi’s early experiments, after bombarding uranium with slow neutrons. Otto Hahn, Lise Meitner, and Fritz Strassmann made a careful chemical analysis of the products formed. On January 6, 1939, they reported that the uranium atom had been split into several parts. Meitner, a theoretical physicist, secretly slipped out of Germany to Stockholm, where, together with her nephew, Otto Frisch, she explained this new phenomenon as a splitting of the nucleus of the uranium atom into barium, krypton and smaller amounts of other disintegration products.

Meitner realized that this nuclear fission was accompanied by the release of stupendous amount of energy by the conversion of some of the mass of uranium into energy in accordance with Einstein’s mass-energy equation, that energy (E) is equal to the product of mass (m) times the speed of light squared (c2), commonly written E=mc2.

Fermi, learnt of this development soon after arriving in New York and realizing its far reaching implications, rushed to greet Niels Bohr on his arrival in New York City. The Hahn-Meitner-Strassmann experiment was repeated at Columbia University, where, after a lot of thinking, Bohr suggested the possibility of a nuclear chain reaction. It was agreed that the uranium-235 isotope, differing in atomic weight from other isotopes of uranium, would be the most effective isotope for such a chain reaction.

Fermi and other eminent scientists like Leo Szilard and Eugene Wegner felt that world peace would be endangered if Hitler’s German scientists use the principle of the nuclear chain reaction to produce the atom bomb. They drafted a letter, which was signed by Einstein. On October 11, 1939, the letter was delivered to the then American President Franklin D Roosevelt Promptly acted on their warning and sanctioned the famous ‘Manhattan Project’ in 1942 to produce the first atom bomb.

Fermi was assigned the task of producing a controlled, self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction. If we burn a piece of paper, it catches fire at one corner, then the sides and ultimately the entire area. The chain reaction is similar to this process. He designed the necessary apparatus, which consisted of graphite and heaps of uranium and uranium oxide. He used approximately six tons of metal in it. He also inserted cadmium strips into it to control the speed of the process. It was named atomic pile by Fermi. On December 2, 1942, Fermi led the team of scientists who, in a laboratory established in the squash court in the basement of stag field at the University of Chicago, achieved the first self-sustaining chain reaction.

Let us see the chain reaction from close quarters. A neutron collides with the uranium nucleus and with a blast it divides it into two parts, creating energy. At this time two or three neurons are ejected and a large amount of energy is released. The new neutrons then go on to repeat the same process with other nuclei takes place producing immense energy. The testing of the first nuclear device, at Alamogordo Air Base in New Mexico on July 16, 1945, was followed by the dropping of atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki on August 6 and 9, 1945, respectively.

At the Metallurgical Laboratory of the University of Chicago, Fermi continued his studies of the basic properties of nuclear particles, with particular emphasis on mesons, which are the quantized form of the force that holds the constituents of the nucleus together. He worked as a consultant in the construction of the synchrocyclotron, a large particle accelerator at the University of Chicago. In 1950, he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Society of London.

Fermi made highly original contributions to theoretical physics, particularly to the mathematics of subatomic particles. Moreover, his experimental work in neutron – induced radioactivity led to the first successful demonstration of nuclear fission, the basic principle of both nuclear power and the atomic bomb. The atomic pile in 1942 at the University of Chicago released for the first time a controlled flow of energy from a source other than the Sun; it was the forerunner of the modern nuclear matter for peaceful purpose. Fermi’s name has been commemorated in physics in various ways. Element 100, fermium and the unit of length 10 -15 meters the Fermi, were named after him, as was the National Accelerator Laboratory, Fermilab, at Batavia, near Chicago.

It is a general belief in the world of scientists that two masterminds worked towards the attainment of this dream project-Albert Einstein and Enrico Fermi. The American Atomic Energy Commission awarded Fermi $ 25000 in November 1954, for his contribution in the development of an atom bomb. He died of cancer just 12 days later. Today, scientists are working to use radiation to cure the disease that killed Enrico Fermi.

Max Planck (1858 – 1917)

Max Planck was a German physicist and considered as the founder of the quantum theory, and thus one of the most important physicists of the twentieth century. He was a man of strong spirit and great will power Planck was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1918.

Max Karl Ernst Ludwig Planck was born on April 23, 1858, in the Baltic seaport city of Kiel, Germany. Kiel was then ruled by Denmark. Max was the sixth child of a distinguished professor of law at kiel. Soon, Kiel was freed from Denmark with the German army’s help. His father then joined as professor of Law at the Munich University. Max came from a distinguished and educated family. His relatives had earned name and fame in the fields of law, public services as administrators, and as scientists and preachers among others.

When Max was 9 years old, his father shifted the family from Kiel to Munich as he was appointed professor at the Munich University. Max began his school education at the Maximiliam Gymnasium in Munich. Here, he came in contact with a philosopher and a dedicated professor of physics who inspired and drew him towards physics and mathematics. He was also fond of music. His family would support and encourage him in his musical pursuits. He became a very good pianist and playing piano became a passion of his life time. He would relax playing it after a hard day’s work. He also loved the outdoors, taking long walks each day, hiking and climbing in the mountains during vacations, even when he grew old.

He studied at Munich University from 1874 to 1876 and from 1879 to 1880 and at Berlin University from 1877 to 1878. He had the opportunity to study under the able guidance of professors Hermann Helmholtz and Gustav Kirchhoff. He presented his thesis on the expansion of hydrogen when it was passed through palladium. It earned him doctorate in 1880. This was his first and last experimental research and it lay at the core of the now known as planck’s constant h, in 1900. The value of h found by planck was 6.55 X 10 -27 erg-second, close to the modern value. After his doctorate, he did research in theoretical physics. It did not take long for Planck’s intelligence and brilliance to get noticed. He was appointed assistant professor at Munich University and soon, he moved to Kiel as professor of Theoretical physics. At the age of 31, he was appointed professor of physics at the Berlin University. He was contemporary of the famous physicists Sir J J Thomson and Heirich Hertz.

Max’s intellectual capacities were however, brought to a focus as a result of his independent study, especially of Rudolf Clausius’ writings on thermodynamics. It is a systematic study of the relationship between heat, work, temperature and energy. In fact, thermodynamics and the science of light are closely related. Normally, a thermometer is used to measure temperature up to a certain degree and for temperatures above that, it is determined from the spectrum of the substance. An optical pyrometer is used to measure the temperature of a furnace. Heat and light are in fact types of energy. So, Planck extended his study beyond thermodynamics to study light. He faced some theoretical problems in his research on radiation. He researched on the amount of light needed to produce heat. He discovered that very little amount of heat brightens a substance. Every object has some amount of heat due to which it glows. But in reality it does not happen so! All his calculations were correct. Thus, he felt there were certain loopholes in the established laws regarding light. This revolutionary scientist took up the challenge to question and rejects the age-old prevailing principles.

Planck formulated new principles. He put forward the hypothesis that light is a stream of energy and energy emitted in specific amounts or quanta. According to him, different levels contain different amounts of energy. According to planck, the energy associated with a quantum of radiation is proportional to the frequency of radiation, and the constant of proportionality (now called planck’s constant h) is a universal one. Planck’s new theory came to be known as ‘Quantum theory’. Max planck presented his new theory to the German Science Academy in December 1900. Many scientists present at the meeting did not accept the new theory. They had another reason. They found the age-old theory of light-Copscular Theory or particle theory being revoked here. They felt that the wave theory readily explained reflection, refraction, interference and polarization, etc. of light. So, how could the wave theory be dismissed? They were not mentally prepared to accept this.

At the same time, Albert Einstein was working on his Theory of Relativity in Switzerland. He made it clear that Planck’s Quantum Theory could easily solve some problems of Photo electricity, which the wave theory failed to solve. In 1905, Albert Einstein used Planck’s idea of light quantum hypothesis to explain photoelectric effect which could not be explained using the wave theory of light. In 1913, Einstein arrived at Berlin and the two great scientists of the time came together and became great friends. They shared their common interest in music-playing piano. Einstein contributed significantly in establishing the quantum theory. Steadily, the scientists of the world accepted Planck’s quantum theory. In 1918, he was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics for his quantum theory of light.

Planck was a man of strong spirit and will power. If he had been less tolerant, less philosophical and had even lesser religious belief, he probably could not have succeeded in overcoming the tragedies that marred his life after his 50’s. In 1909, his first wife, Marie Merck, daughter of a Munich banker, died after 22 years of happy marriage, leaving Planck with two sons and twin daughters. He married again and had three children from the second marriage. He lost his elder son Karl in action in 1916 during World War I. The following year, Margarete, one of his daughters, died in childbirth, and in 1919 the same fate befell Emma, his second daughter. The terror unleashed by the Nazis compelled his two dear friends Albert Einstein and Erwin Schrodinger to leave Germany for good. He was to face further tragedy with the advent of World War II. The house in Berlin where he lived was totally destroyed be bombs in 1944.

The Nazis could not compel Planck to sign the Declaration in favour of Nazism. He was constantly harassed to sign it, but he did not do so. They again approached him in 1944 with even more pressure. Planck was 86 years old then, while his only remaining son Erwin, was in prison accused of being a traitor. They agreed to release Erwin provided Planck signed the Declaration. But Planck categorically refused to sign and as a result, Erwin was shot dead. Later, he lost his property and his personal library in war blitz. This old scientist withstood all the tragedies without forsaking principles which were so dear to him.

Germany suffered a massive defeat at the hands of the allied forces. A new and strong German nation emerged as the Nazi regime came to an end. Nazism lost its grip over the psyche of the people. New German administrators organized a grand function to celebrate the 90th birthday of this great scientist. Unfortunately, he passed away on October 4, 1947, a few months before the big day. The Kaiser Wilhelm Academy of Science was renamed Max Planck Academy of Science in honour of this great man. Moreover, the German medal for foremost research called Max planck medal is awarded every year in his honour.














Scientist Max Planck Photo

Johannes Kepler (1571 – 1630)

Johannes Kepler, a mathematician, astronomer and astrologer was born on December 27, 1571 at Wiel der Stadt, Wurtemberg, Germany. He is best known for his eponymous laws of planetary motion, codified by later astronomers, based on his works Astronomia nova, Harmonices Mundi, and Epitome of Copernican Astronomy. These works also provided one of the foundations for Isaac Newton's theory of universal gravitation. Students of astronomy still study his theory. His father was a mercenary soldier and his mother was a daughter of an innkeeper. When he was four year old, a bout of smallpox weakened his eyesight and affected his health. Despite such difficulties, young Johannes Kepler was a bright and intelligent boy.

Kepler completed his early education in a local school and then at a nearby seminary for aspiring priesthood. He went on to enroll on a scholarship at the local University of Tubingen, the (as now) a bastion of Lutheran orthodoxy and in 1591, obtained master’s degree in theology. His favorite subjects were mathematics and science. During his study he was introduced to Copernicus’ theories. The way planets revolve round the Sun interested him. He now gave up his ambition of becoming a priest.

In 1594, at the age of 23, he was appointed as lecturer of mathematics at Grates University. He then married a girl from a rich family. Things started looking up and it seemed he had found a definite direction in life. Kepler belonged to the Protestant faith. Communal disturbance and strife forced him to abandon Grates University in 1597. This great mathematician and scientist had a liking for theology. He linked all of life’s incidents with it. He believed that he had no faith in astrology.

When Kepler left Grates University, it so happened that Denmark’s famous astronomer Tycho Brahe had settled in Prague after being banished from his country. Brahe was opposed to the Copernicus theories. He believed more in the Almighty’s universal principles. Brahe’s observations regarding the stars were aplenty. Kepler got an opportunity to work with Brahe. Brahe appointed Kepler as his assistant and torchbearer. Kepler then firmly believed that the sun was the centre of the universe and not the earth.

In 1601 AD, Tycho Brahe passed away, but Kepler’s planetary calculations continued. After analyzing Brahe’s works Kepler came to certain conclusions regarding the motion of planets, which were noteworthy. Thus, the geo-centric (earth at the centre) planetary observations that Ptolemy made were focused on to Copernicus observations that planet revolved round the Sun in circles. Kepler improved upon this theory and proved that the orbits of planets were not in circles but in flattened circles or ellipses. His important observations came to be recognized as Kepler’s Laws. Kepler’s three laws of planetary motion are as follows:-

1) The orbits of the planets are ellipse, with the Sun at one focus of the ellipse.

2) The line joining planet to the Sun sweeps out equal areas in equal times as the planet moves around the Sun.

3) The squares of the periods of any two planets are proportional to the cubes of their mean distance from the Sun.

Kepler concluded further that the Sun has a major influence on the motion of planets. Some magnetic force worked between the Sun and the planets. After almost half a century, Isaac Newton propounded the Lows of Motion and Gravitation. Even today Kepler’s and Newton’s laws are considered path-breaking.

He had made a deep study of human sight and telescope. This way he laid the foundations for the development of telescopes for the study of celestial bodies.

Regarding Kepler’s novel discovery that planets move in elliptical orbits around the Sum, many feel it is incomplete. There is regular change in the planetary motions around the Sun. Through calculations he also concluded how much time celestial bodies take to complete one orbit around the Sun take less time in orbit. It can be said that Johannes Kepler’s discoveries would have contributed a great deal to the Laws of Gravitation propounded by Isaac Newton. 12 years before Isaac Newton was born, this great scientists died in 1630 of fever at Regensburg at the age of 60.











Johannes Kepler Photo

Prof. J. J. Chinoy (1909 – 1978)

India’s great scientist and Gujarat’s famous Jamshedji Chinoy was born on February 19, 1909 in Kachchh-Bhuj. He was the son of Jijabhai & Gulbai Chinoy. He had his college education in Mumbai. In 1929, he cleared B.Sc. in Botany with a first class with distinction from Mumbai University. After losing his father at a very young age, he was brought up by his grandfather. Some years later, his grandfather too, passed away. With courage and hard work he surged forward. Considered a bright student in school and college, he regularly took part in various debates.

Having stood first at the graduate level in his subject, he was awarded the Dakshina Fellowship by Mumbai’s Government College, better known as Royal Institute of Science at that time. Besides, he received Mumbai University’s Research Fellowship. In 1931, he cleared MSc. with first class honours. Because of his promising career and good results; after he completed post- graduation, he went to Britain on a Research Fellowship. To do Ph D from London University, he joined the Imperial College. There he had the unique opportunity to undertake research under the guidance of work-renowned botanist professor F G Gregory. In 1935, he was awarded the Ph D degree by London University.

After completing PhD he returned to India and joined the Central Cotton Committee at Layalpur as physiological assistant. In 1941, he joined the Indian Agriculture Research Institute as Assistant Economical Botanist. When India attained independence, more doors opened for brilliant research scientists. Meanwhile, this brilliant research scientist was invited to join as Reader at the botany department of Delhi University. He accepted it wholeheartedly. Thus, he became associated with university education. He taught for 22 years at the post-graduate level and was engaged in research. Many of his research papers were published during this time. He also actively participated in many research workshops and seminars abroad.

In 1959, when he got the opportunity to join Gujrat University, he snapped it to serve his native place. He joined as professor and head of the botany department. Meanwhile, from 1962 to 1974, he was also the director of the University School of Sciences. For the last 50 years he was engaged in pure and applied research. His research work received recognition form various institutes and the science world. In 1959, at the ninth International Botany Congress held at Montreal in Canada, he headed the plant physiology section. In 1961 for his outstanding research, Gujrat University awarded his the Dr. K G Naik gold medal. In 1964, he was specially invited to represent India and take active part in the discussions at the tenth International Botany Congress in Edinborough. In 1975, he was selected as the working vice-president of the twelfth International Botany Congress held at Leningrad in Russia. At this congress he was awarded a special medal for his exceptional research work.

Besides, Chinoy also visited the world-famous biological research schools in England, Holland, France, Germany, Belgium, Sweden, Norway and Russia. In many of these countries he honoured the invitation extended to him by the science academies to lecture in their lecture series. He was appointed Fellow of Indian Academy of Science. Besides, there was a demand for his lectures at the botany seminars held at Bhavnagar, Vadodara , Kolkata and other places in India. In these seminars he was invited as president, vice-president or chief speaker. Wherever possible he would go, there would be exchange of thoughts and others would be benefited by his knowledge. He was the patron member of the Plant physiology Society of India, besides serving as honorary secretary, vice-president and president. The prestigious Rafi Ahmed Kidwai Memorial Prize awarded every year by the New Delhi based Indian Council for Agriculture Research, was awarded to Chinoy for 1974-75, for his agriculture botanical research.

Chinoy had developed a plant strain with disease-free and fast growing seeds besides seeds that required less water and could be grown during droughts. He contributed immensely towards cellular and molecular biology. More than 250 research papers of his were published in national and international magazines. Under his leadership a group of leading scientists was working on plant physiology at Gujrat University. This group received recognition in India and abroad. Under his able guidance more than 100 students got their PhD degrees. These students are holding high posts in well-known research institute within the country and abroad. Till his last breath, Chinoy rendered service in this field. Even after retirement he continued his honorary services. Under the aegis of the University Grants Commission, New Delhi, Chinoy conceived the book ‘Role of Ascorbic Acid in Plant Metabolism’. This great scientist who believed in the adage ‘Work is Worship’ remained active till the end of his life.

Chinoy was an optimist and mild-mannered. Nobody ever found him furious. Punctuality and discipline were his watchwords. He cared for his students, employees and co-workers. He understood their personal problems and always tried to help them. He believed that if there is no teamwork there could be no worthwhile research even though the laboratory is well-equipped. With a smiling face he would enter the department on time and the entire department would liven up. It was said that he had a sweet tooth. His voice and speech too, were melodious and sweet-sounding.

On March 12, 1978 at the age of 69 years, the country’s great scientist Chinoy took leave from us forever. He has departed mortally, but left a body of sincere students behind. We will always remember this honest son of the soil and scholar of Gujrat through his works.

Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543)

Nicolaus Copernicus was a mathematician and astronomer who proposed that the sun was stationary in the center of the universe and the earth revolved around it. He was born on February 19, 1473, in Torun city of Poland in Europe. His was the son of Copernide and Barbara. Nicolaus was the youngest among two sons and two daughters. Torun was a big and prosperous trade centre at the time of the birth of this great scientist. His father was a scholarly magistrate of the city. Besides, he was a rich, cultured, distinguished social worker and a well-wisher of society. When Nicolaus was 10 years old, his father died. The children were then put under the care of their uncle Lucas. His uncle was a priest and educationist. He was a respected figure in society. It was but natural for the children to be brought in a cultured and religious environment. Young Nicolaus had made up his mind to become a preacher and accordingly focused his energies in this direction.

At the age of 18, Copernicus joined the Cracow University in Poland’s capital Cracow. It was a well-known institute at that time with some of the best teachers in the land. A highly reputed institute, it attracted intelligent students from as far as Germany, Hungary, Italy, and Switzerland who came here to study. Latin was prominent and important medium of instruction. To have a better understanding of literature, science and other subjects, it was essential to know Latin. After joining the university, Copernicus too gained proficiency in Latin. He then started taking deep interest in astronomy, geometry (mathematics) and geography besides other important areas of study then. It was a time when Columbus was successful in discovering the new continent of America. Copernicus was 10 Years old then. With time, sea voyages were on the rise and with bigger ships and increasing sea travel, more emphasis was laid on astronomy. The need for accurate almanacs was felt, for festivals were celebrated according to the dictates of the church. Such was the state of society during that period.

Copernicus education took a different turn. In 1496, after leaving Cracow University, he joined Bologna School of law in Itlay. From here he moved to the famous Padua University where he studied medicine during 1501-1505. Thereafter, he took his Doctor of Canon Law degree from Ferara Univesity and he arrived at his uncle’s place in Poland. Discussions and deliberations with his uncle who was a priest led to the conclusion that his doctorate would be useful in taking up religious work. It was believed then that medicine and astrology were closely related. Once again Nicolaus went to Padua University and joined the School of Medicine.

The famous astronomer and mathematician-scientist Ptolemy (90 AD to 168 AD) was born in Alexandria, Egypt. In the second century it was a big port city, besides being the cultural capital. To enhance their knowledge, intellectuals and thinkers from the country and abroad visited its well-stacked libraries and imposing museums in this city. Greek scholar Ptolemy, too visited this city many a time for his study. In 150 AD, Ptolemy had made some important observations regarding the motion of celestial bodies. Though he did not entirely understand many peculiarities of these heavenly bodies, he believed in what he saw and accepted the prevailing belief that the earth is stationery and the entire universe revolves around it. Therefore, he believed in the seeming truth that the Sun rises in the East and sets in the West.

Four centuries before Ptolemy, another Greek philosopher and astrologer had come to conclusion that the Sun was centre of the universe, but puritans did not heed to his conclusions and he was criticized. Ptolemy was influenced by popular belief. Accepting the geocentric (having the earth as centre) theory of the universe, Ptolemy based his calculations on it in his volume ‘The Great Treatise of Astronomy’, better known as ‘Almegaste’. Hence certain flaws appear in his calculations.

In Greek, ‘Planet means’ something that wanders on its own’. It had become an acceptable fact with philosophers, religious teachers and scientists, propagating the belief that the earth was stationary and the sun and other planets revolved around the earth. Ptolemy, the great scholar tried to explain the planetary motions and their positions, of which only some were true. Regarding the wrong calculations he had made, he justified them by calling them wandering celestial bodies. Poland’s famous scientist Copernicus was able to understand the complex planetary motions of these celestial bodies, but for this he had assumed that the Sun was at the centre of the universe.

It was by now clear that Sun and other planets revolved in orbits. During one such revolution, a celestial body in radial motion moves 360 degree. This circle is divided into 12 parts each of 30 degree. These are known as the Zodiac signs. Today we know that the Sun moves from one Zodiac sign to another, every month. Thus, in one year, the earth completes one revolution around the Sun. It was also believed then that there was an unknown link between the planets, Zodiac signs and the various organs of the body. On this basis and taking into account the birth time, astrologers draw the life chart of a person. Today too, people pay a lot of money to astrologers to know their future. In ancient India, Aryabhatt, Varahmihir, Brahmgupt, Bhaskaracharya and other astronomers were popular as astrologers.

During his learning years, Copernicus got a job as a junior priest in a church. Thus he received knowledge of science, religion and philosophy. Besides, he had studied law, which gave him a deep insight into the laws governing the church. Add to this his knowledge of Greek and Latin, and he was a well-versed scholar at the age of 33. He returned to Poland to serve his ailing uncle. Here his leisure hours were spent in independent study. This gave him a new insight into the universe and a scientific approach also. Initially, he accepted the ancient Greek and Arab calculations as they were. He had no appropriate instruments, but his was a thinking mind that worked wonders. On the basis of mathematics and philosophy he visualized the universe as a divine arrangement and made some observations. But all these remained in his notebooks.

This is precisely what took him to the peak of his popularity. In 1539, a 25-year-old German student named Georg Rheticus came to him. This bright young man impressed Copernicus. At 28, he joined Wittenberg University as professor. For two years Rheticus made a deep study of Copernicus’ notes and calculations. He came to the conclusion that Copernicus’ observations were very noteworthy and needed to be published. Taking into account the motions of planets Copernicus had classified them. He had clearly stated that the Sun is at the centre of the universe and all planets including the earth revolve around it. He had developed a theory based on it. Taking all these theories into account along with his theories, he wrote a treatise. But fearing a religious backlash due to Ptolemy’s widespread influence at that time, he did not get it published.

In 1543, with Copernicus falling ill, Georg Rheticus and his other friends took his permission to get his treatise printed and took it to Germany. The book was named De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (The revolution of the heavenly spheres). The credit for getting Copernicus’ notes printed in book form goes to Rheticus to an extent. When the printed book reached Copernicus, he was on his deathbed. He was in no condition to pass judgement or appreciate it. His heart had gone weak and his brain almost dead. He died on 24 May 1543.

Many rank this book along with Newton’s Principia. It sowed the seeds for discarding Ptolemy’s famous theory. Old and superstitions beliefs were given a burial and the path to the development of modern astronomy was thus laid. Fourteen centuries after Ptolemy had propounded his geocentric theory, Copernicus had presented his helio-centric theory. The stamp of religion was paramount at that time and no one dared oppose it. With Copernicus theory it was the dawn of a new era.

Salim Ali (1896-1987)

Salim Moizuddin Abdul Ali was an Indian ornithologist and naturalist and also Known as the "birdman of India". He was born on November 12, 1896, in a big Muslim family of Khetwadi in Mumbai. He had five brothers and four sisters. His mother’s name was Jijat-un-nissa. His father Moizuddin died when he was just one year old & mother died when he was three year old. His uncle Amiruddin Taiyabji aroused in him a curiosity towards bird. After the death of his parents, uncle Amiruddin and Aunt Begum Hamida raised all the children.

It was a time when interest in birds was minimal. Birds were sold freely in Mumbai’s markets. For one rupee you could get eight to twelve birds many a time. Ali would bring such a variety of birds, keep them in cane baskets, teach them a little and then release them. He would never confine any bird for long or keep a pet forever. He would catch a bird, study it and after noting down its traits, release it.

At the age of eight he was admitted to a local school. In a short time he got admission to the St Xavier’s School. At the age of 14 years, owing to poor health he had to go and live with his brother and sister-in-law in Hyderabad (Sindh, Pakistan). There too along with the office peon he would look out for bird nests and study the birds and their eggs. In 1913, at the age of 17 years, he passed the matriculation examination of Mumbai University. By this time he had read books on hunting. Wild animals and jungles and gathered some interesting information. Such readings and introspection led Ali to a linking for wildlife. He would catch birds and make a comparative study. Then life suddenly took a turn. A letter from a relative in Myanmar (Burma) arrived. It mentioned that if Ali was not interested in studies he could come and join the newly set up mining industry in Myanmar. Salim was finding mathematics a difficult subject, so he at once agreed to leave for Myanmar. Through he was never interested in business; he was very keen to know the wildlife in the jungles there.

Here, he met a forest officer J.C. Hoywood. Ali learnt a lot about Myanmar’s birds form Hoywood. He gathered a lot of knowledge about birds and the scientific study of birds (Ornithology). Not inclined towards business, he had to return to Mumbai. Here he came in contact with father Blater, head of the biology department of St Xavier’s College. With his encouragement, Ali completed his graduation with animal science as his subject. In his 22nd year, in December 1918, Ali married Tehmina, who was well-versed in English and Urdu and had a visa for England. Tehmina encouraged her husband in his study of birds.

Salim Ali had no post-graduate degree in bird science or biology, but in five to seven years after marriage he had gathered a lot of information and gained insight into bird science, biology and animal science. In the meantime, he got a job in a friend’s export unit. Some time later, Father Blater came to his rescue. He got him a job as guide lecturer at Mumbai’s natural History Society Museum. After joining here he realized that if he wanted to become an authority on birds he had to make their systematic study. No such course on bird science was offered in any institute anywhere in the country. So, he decided to go to Berlin for such a study. There he started the study of birds with Bernhard, a young bird scientist. In Berlin, Ali studied with dedication and single-mindedness. In 1930, he returned from Berlin and started work in Nizam’s Hyderabad. He also received some grant for this. He studied bird science and also made a survey of birds. His study of bird habits earned him praise. Here he got a good opportunity to study the birds of Nilgiri.

Between 1934 and 1939, Ali studied bird science in Dehradun. Now, he came to be recognized among the world’s well-known bird scientists (ornithologists). In 1945, he made a scientific study of the birds of Kailas and Mansarovar. He has mentioned the details in his autobiography – The Fall of a Sparrow. In the deserts of Kachchh, he undertook a study, which he brought out in a volume titled Birds of Kachchh. For the study of birds he also undertook a motorcycle tour of Europe. His diary reveals many such instances. Now, he was an internationally known ornithologist. His work came to be appreciated in the country and abroad. He received honour and awards. In 1953, he was awarded the Asiatic Society Medal and in 1984, the Asiatic Society of Bangladesh as an appreciation of his work awarded him the Gold medal. In 1958, the Aligarh muslim University; in 173, the Delhi University and in 1978, the Andhara University honoured him with Doctor of Science degrees.

The Government of India honoured him with Padma Bhushan in 1958 and the Padma Vibhushan in 1976. Besides, in 1982, the Government of India honoured him by giving him the national research professorship in bird science. He was lauded for his efforts to protect wildlife and was awarded the National Award (gold medal) in 1983. The same year America’s National wildlife federation honoured him with the International Award. On June 20, 1987, this great ornithologist left this word.

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Charles Darwin (1809-1882)

Charles Darwin was an English naturalist renowned for his documentation of evolution and for his theory of its operation, known as Darwinism. He was born at Shrewsbury, England on February on 12, 1809. He was the son of Robert Waring Darwin, who was a popular doctor, and the grandson of the physician Erasmus Darwin, the author of Zoonomia, or the Laws of Organic Life, and of the artisan-entrepreneur Josiah Wedgwood. His family was happy, contented and cultured. Charles lost his mother when he was just eight year old. Within the educated and cultured family, Charles was considered very mediocre at studies. The head school teacher would consider him a dull and unintelligent student. However, his father and grandfather had fond hopes for him. His father wished he become a doctor, however his wish was never fulfilled. Many believed that Charles had poor ability to understand or comprehend. Some even considered him to be dumb. In reality, Charles was a very imaginative child. Though not interested in the subjects taught at school, he was interested in the study of nature. He had a very sharp and observant eye.

Darwin was sent to Edinburough University along with his elder brother for higher education. He was again mediocre in his studies but he excelled at the student debates, particularly on evolution. During the debates he would argue and put across his point forcefully. His ability to analyse and his intelligence were distinguishable from others. Having failed at the university after spending two years, his father felt his dream of seeing him a doctor vanish fast. Sons of cultured families were in those days expected to study and he was sent to Cambridge. Here, he began studying religion to become a bishop, however he was not at all interested in it. He loved to observe small insects and living organisms. He would never get tired collecting them, observing them and writing about them. At 22, he received a degree in religion, but he never wanted to take up missionary activities. He came in contact with a reputed professor of botony John Henslow, at the University. Henslow gave a recommendation letter and told him to meet Captain Robert Fritzroy of HMS Beagle, a 235-ton ocean liner. In this manner Darwin was able to escape from the missionary activities.

HMS Beagle was gigantic government owned ship. It was commissioned to inspect, study and survey the South American Coast. Darwin got an offer as Naturalist on the ship. He was supposed to pay for the expenses on board. As he loved the work, his father very reluctantly agreed to pay for the voyage. In 1831, the ship set sail. It was to return within two years but actually returned after live years to England, in the year 1836.

Darwin was very fine observer and investigator. He would never tire while collecting specimen and writing down his observations in copious notes. He would collect trunk-loads of specimen. For five years he continued the survey of the American coastline. HMS Beagle finally reached the south western tip about 800 kms away, where the famous natural Galapagos Islands exist. These islands could be termed as nature’s biggest laboratory. Here, Darwin was able to discover vital links to the origin of several species. He found unique species of living organisms and also learned about the detailed changes they had undergone during the process of evolution. Darwin noted that each island had snakes, birds and a variety of other animals. There were dissimilarities among the same species also. One of the islanders pointing at the tortoise, claimed to even identify the particular island to which it belonged. All these bits of information came in handy later when he conducted indepth research.

Darwin read a book by Thomas Malthus ‘Essay on population’, which was published in 1838, that cleared his doubts. During the voyage, he had observed and collected several species of plants and living organisms. He had seen and collected fossils too. All this was very useful for his research later. He was certain that be it animals or mankind, all had to fight for food, survival and evolution into further species while adapting to the environment. 20 years after the historic voyage and extensive studies, he arrived at some conclusions. He concluded that changes taking place within our body get destroyed. This is how different species evolve and earlier ones become extinct.

In 1858, Malaya’s famous naturalist Alfred Wallace published an essay: ‘What are the principles of nature that control the changes in living organisms?’ This essay had many findings and thoughts common to those of Darwin. Friends advised Darwin to publish his findings too. It was then that he decided to write, Print and publish his thoughts, analysis and conclusions and present them to the world. In July 1858, a copy each of Wallace’s work and Darwin’s essay separately reached the Linian Society at London and were read by its members. The following year Darwin’s book ‘Origin of Species’ was published. Darwin had attempted to explain the principles of evolution. However, the book generated countroversy that went on for a long time. Many works criticizing Darwin’s theory were published. In one particular essay, a priest of Oxford criticized Darwin’s theory. Darwin was unwell by the time he returned to England. He suffered from nagging headache and fits. At 70, he wanted to go on a sea expedition, but lacked courage. He had married Emma Wedgewood, His cousin in 1839 and settled down in small village near kent. He never had to struggle for a livelihood. He spent the rest of his life experimenting in his laboratory classifying the specimen he had collected, in gardening and study. He was cheerful and very popular due to his nature.

This great and famous nature lover, father of the Evolution theory, died on April 16, 1882 at 72. His grave is located next to the famous physicist and mathematician Issac Newton in the Westminster Abbey. England and the world honoured him this way. It can be said that if he were to visit the Galapagos Islands today, he would feel sad because he would find many unique species extinct, which he had seen in the 1830’s trip. Giant tortoises and certain species of monkeys are hard to find. Large aerodromes have been constructed on these islands. Aircraft noise pollution has suppressed the sweet chatter of birds forever. Human interference and the so-called modern cultures have contributed in permanently destroying nature.














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Sir Edward Jenner (1749 – 1823)

Dr. Edward Jenner was the inventor of the smallpox vaccine. He was born on May 17, 1749 in Gloucestershire, England. His father was a vicar. Edward was admitted to the local primary school, where he turned out to be a good student especially interest in biology. Gradually, He began studying to become a doctor. At that time it was customary for a medical student to assist an experienced doctor and seek his guidance. He sought training under the experienced surgeon Dr Daniel Ludlow. At 21, Jenner Joined the St. George Hospital in London to undergo training under the great surgeon and anatomist Dr. John Hunter.

It was a time when the field of medicine was in its nascent stage. Doctors experimented with herbs and used them to cure a disease. When an epidemic struck any region, millions of people lost their lives. In Europe alone, 60 million people succumbed to various diseases between the periods of 1700-1800. People considered such contagious disease as the Lord’s wrath curse. In 1721, smallpox had infected almost half the population of Boston in USA, 10 per cent of whom lost their lives. Today, this disease has been eradicated from the face of the earth. The Vaccine has played an important role in controlling and curbing this disease. All credit goes to Jenner for discovering the smallpox vaccine.

Dr. John Hunter of the St George Hospital was an inquisitive and restless soul. He would conduct various experiments, which he would try on himself first. Unfortunately, he became a victim of an incurable disease, which cut short his life. His students underwent the same kind of rigour. Hunter became Jenner’s lifelong friend and guide. After graduating from St George Hospital, on the advice of Hunter, Jenner returned to Gloucestershire to practice medicine. Hunter and Jenner continued their correspondence for long. Hunter believed that the rural-bred Jenner would be more comfortable working in a rural area than an urban set-up. Modern medicines were still a far cry in those times. Doctors prescribed herbs and people preferred homemade remedies to combat diseases. They knew that some plants and vegetables had miraculous healing powers. Degetelis was considered to be a vital medicine for heart-related diseases. Like India, local remedies were sought there.

Some diseases attack a person once in a lifetime, for example, German measles. Parents would feel relieved if this disease attacked their daughters at a young age, since it would create complications at a later age. Once this disease attacked at a young age, it would not attack again. Besides, it was easier to cure this disease when the patient is young.

Similar belief prevailed in the case of smallpox. In the East, to escape the curse of smallpox it was a practice to inject the germs of smallpox in the body to weaken its deadly effect. Unfortunately, some lost their lives in the process.

The village fold of Gloucestershire found that a patient of cowpox did not catch smallpox. This disease first invariably comes to our mind: Why only cows and not horses or any other animal? Encouraged by Hunter, Jenner concentrate his research on cowpox. He examined 27 patients suffering from this disease. He published his findings in 1796. He conducted a unique and bold experiment. After convincing the parents, Jenner injected an eight – year- old boy Jimmy Flipps with lymph from a cowpox vesicle. It made the healthy boy sick. He followed this with injections taken from smallpox pustules. The boy did not develop smallpox. When Jenner announced his findings, there was upheaval in society. There were some who criticized Jenner for interfering with the natural process of life and some who congratulated him for his achievements. Some even said it was no big achievement and still others tried to limitate him and conducted experiments without proper knowledge, killing patients rather than curing them in the process.

When the dust settled, Jenner detailed his discovery-presenting the world with the smallpox vaccine. The world hounoured him and the parliament conferred knighthood on him. He was now Sir Edward Jenner- Besides, he was awarded $ 20,000. Oxford University bestowed on him an honorary degree. The Czar of Russia gifted him a gold ring and Napoleon congratulated him for his path-breaking discovery. A group of Indians based in America honoured him with gifts and publicly lauded his achievement. The world will remain indebted to Jenner for his vaccine that has contributed to a healthy generation. We should always ensure that every healthy child is inoculated for all- smallpox, Chickenpox, polio and diphtheria.

Jenner spent his later life at his country house in Gloucestershire. He died in January. 1823. His vaccine has ensured a smallpox- free society. Various vaccines developed for different diseases have helped children to be resistant to diseases. Dr. Jonas Salk is one such precursor to develop the polio vaccine and contribute towards a polio-free world.













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Prof. Tribhuvandas Gajjar (1863- 1920)

Tribhuvandas Kalyandas Gajjar was India’s great scientist and Gujrat’s first and foremost chemist. He was born in August, 1863 in a well-to-do and prosperous Gajjar family of Surat. His uncle, Atmaram Gajjar was well-known personality. Atmarambhai’s ancestor, who belonged to carpenter family, had earlier settled in Dhanasuthar’s pole in Ahmedabad. A square named Gajjar square still exists there.



Tribhuvandas's father kalyandas was a well-known sculptor. He had also written a book called ‘The Art of Sculpture’. Tribhuvandas was the youngest of four sons and two daughters of Kalyandas. Tribhuvan was an intelligent child. He cleared every class with high grades. His father was pleased with his brightness. At home, he taught Tribhuvan the art of sculpting. Thus, Tribhuvan learnt intricate wood carving and obtained knowledge of the traditional art of sculpting from his father. When he was 16, he cleared the matriculation examination with good marks. While at school his interest turned towards science. For higher education, he joined the science stream of Mumbai’s (Bombay’s) Elphinstone College. He got 75 % marks in B Sc with Chemistry as his principle subject. For this achievement, he was appointed junior fellow during his postgraduate studies and later, senior fellow, in the college. As a junior fellow, he taught chemistry and physics to fresh admitted students. After that he completed his MA from Mumbai University.



India’s economic condition had worsened during the British rule. With the intent of helping society during these trying times, he came to Surat and started the cottage industry school. His aim was to guide the youth in various skilled work based on science, ultimately to make them self-reliant. But later on, due to lack of government aid and funds, he had to wind up this school. Meanwhile, he was invited by the Mumbai Government to join Sindh College in Karachi as professor of chemistry with salary of Rs. 300 per month. He was also invited by vadodara (Baroda) college for the same post with salary of Rs. 200 per month. Since the Maharaja of Vadodara, Sir Sayajirao Gaikwad encouraged cottage industry. Tribhuandas decided to join Vadodara College even though the salary would have been less than what he would have got at Sindh College.



After joining Vadodara College, he won the hearts of all with his knowledge, enthusiasm and dedication. There, he skillfully carried on his work. Some time later, an order was issued to send him abroad along with a few bright students for further studies. He was to be sent abroad for further study in farming and after his return, he would be made deputy collector in the revenue department. He convinced his superiors not to send him abroad and showed his readiness to take up printing and dyeing work in the state. For this purpose, he carried out a survey and set up a laboratory. He started giving scientific training to the youth of the families engaged in dyeing and printing. There was a good demand for these trained artisans. In this venture, he received support of the Maharaja and the people as well. He met the Maharaja and apprised him of the importance of setting up a training school like kala Bhavan for cottage industry.



In June 1890, Kala Bhavan was established in Vadodara and its entire responsibility rested on Gajjar’s shoulders. A special fund for this purpose was also handed over to him. In a short time span, 800 students had joined the school. Due to hard work, he introduced courses in carpentry, drawing, architecture, building construction, weaving, dyeing, chemistry, physics, etc., and started imparting knowledge. He provided free accommodation to economically weak students. It was his earnest desire that our country should match other countries in cottage industry and also in the field of science. After overcoming teething problems, he started thinking ahead. He found it essential that necessary study material be written and published in the vernacular language. He also obtained the Maharaja’s permission in this regard. Maharaja Sayajirao granted him permission to spend up to Rs. 50, 000 on that venture. For this purpose, he also developed a dictionary. Professor Gajjar also knew the German language. He translated German books and periodicals on the cottage industries in Gujarati and published them in his magazine Rangrahasya (Colour sectets). This helped in teaching new techniques to the students. Gradually, the demand for students who passed out from kala Bhavan increased. In five years, the kala Bhavan became the soul of Gajjar. But, due to false propaganda by some envious elements he had to resign from the institute in 1896. He then went to Mumbai.



After coming to Mumbai, he joined Wilson College as professor of chemistry. There, he contributed towards improvements in the field of education and modernized the curriculum. Meanwhile, Mumbai was in the grip of plague and no medicine proved to be effective. Gajjar developed a medicine proved to be very effective. He was opposed to the idea of grabbing the opportunity to patent the medicine and make some fast money. He placed the medicine before the world. His only intention was to serve the poor people. In 1898, at his own expense, he set up a private laboratory named Technochemical Laboratory. Gradually, he expanded the institute with more facilities. Later, Mumbai University and Grant Medical College granted recognition to this laboratory for their students.



Meanwhile, in 1898, an incident took place that made Gajjar famous the world over. It so happened that in mumbai’s walled city area on Esplanade Road. Someone had blackened the face of the marble statue of Queen Victoria. The colour was permanent and it was difficult to remove it. The British government was in a hurry to clean up the statue, but they were unsuccessful. Experts from the world over were called in, but failed to clean it up. At this stage, Gajjar showed his willingness to remove the stains. The government summoned Gajjar and asked him to clean up a part of the statue. He successfully did it and went on to remove all the stains. Newspapers all over the world hailed professor Gajjar’s efforts. He became world-famous and gained recognition internationally as a chemist. After this, Gajjar made such an amazing discovery that he received both wealth and recognition. He developed a new process to clean up pearls that had turned yellow. When the great Indian chemist Acharya Prafulla Chandra Ray heard the news of Gajjar’s astonishing achievement he congratulated him.



Professor Gajjar earned lakhs of rupees from this venture. He then set up the ‘Alembic Chemistry Works’ in vadodara with help from his student Srikoti Bhaskar. Bhaskar was then sent to Germany to gain specialized knowledge. Meanwhile, he read litterateur Govardhanram Tripathi’s novel Saraswatichandra, and was impressed by the plan of kalyan village. He met this great Gujarati novelist in person and they became good friends. He started one such scheme near Andheri. There, he began developing the cottage industry and encouraged traditional art for the welfare of the people. Gajjar then, had plenty of money. Due to wealth, many disputes took place within the family that reached the court. Though he won the case, he lost a lot of money and peace of mind. Meanwhile, his wife passed away. He started feeling lonely. After the death of his wife, he never felt happy and cheerful. Then came the unexpected news of the death of his student. Srikoti Bhaskar. He spent his health and wealth to keep alembic chemical works stable and sustained. Life became difficult and worries affected his health. He was a depressed and dejected man. Gradually, he became a victim of sleeplessness. He had become very lonely. This great scientist was really moved when he once had the opportunity to meet Mahatma Gandhi. Gandhi advised him to spend his remaining life peacefully and happily.



Gajjar was his own doctor, but could not sustain his lifeline. On july 16, 1920, this great soul departed for his heavenly abode. Thus, this great chemist from Gujrat, after spending his hard earned money for the selfare of the people and gifting the laboratory he set up to the National Medical College, took leave from this world. We pay our heartfelt tribute to this great scientist and worthy son of Gujarat.

J Robert Oppenheimer (1904 – 1967)

J Robert Oppenheimer was an American theoretical physicist and professor of physics at the University of California, Berkeley. He was born in New York on April 22, 1904. His parents, Julius S. Oppenheimer, a wealthy German textile merchant, and Ella Friedman, an artist, were of Jewish descent but did not observe the religious traditions. He was fond of collecting rock samples since his childhood. He also liked to study microorganisms with a homemade microscope. Painting and music were his forte. His parents were well-to-do German-Jewish immigrants who had made fortune by importing textiles in New York City. They paid proper attention to their son’s needs and admitted him to the best school.

When he was 12, chemistry attracted his attention. His father encouraged him by setting up a small laboratory at home and by engaging a good tutor for him. After clearing his school grade with a first class first, he traveled to Europe with his father. Here, he was exposed to various religions and cultures. During this period he also gained command over Greek, Spanish, French, Italian and Latin languages. Returning from Europe, 19 year old Oppenheimer entered Harvard University and completed his course in three years instead of the usual four and graduated with a first class. At 22, he joined the Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge University. Here, he got an opportunity to work with Rutherford, who had contributed immensely towards the study of radioactivity and nuclear physics. He was working on the immense energy produced by the fission of the nucleus of an atom. Oppenheimer also came in contact with the great physicist Max Born and Paul Dirac. On Born’s advice and invitation, Oppenheimer decided to go to Gottingen University, Germany to work under the great mathematician. Both worked together to master mathematics and produced important research papers on quantum theories. Oppenheimer completed his doctorate there. He then moved to Zurich and worked there for some time. In Europe, Oppenheimer studied under Werner Heisenberg also. In 1928, he returned to America, a successful 24-year old young man.

In America, he worked as professor at California University at Berkeley and the California Institute of Technology. He got married and settled there. He concentrated totally on academics. Besides, he worked on atomic fission. He taught advance physics and mathematics to the students. His reputation attracted students and scientists from various countries. In association with a colleague Mellah Phillips, he put forward the Oppenheimer-Philips Theory. The theory was the base for the discovery of heavy hydrogen nucleus.

World War II began in 1939. Einstein and other scientists had understood the aim of Nazi Germany. They had apprised President Roosevelt about the possibility of German and Italian scientists working towards making of an atom bomb. Such a bomb could destroy the world and establish Nazi rule over the world. They felt that it was necessary for America to make such a bomb and end the World War II. The Manhattan Project, a secret mission to build an atom bomb, was launched in 1942. Oppenheimer was appointed to head the entire project, as he was the head of the Manhattan Committee. Los Alamos in New Mexico was choosen as the place for producing the atom bomb. The top-secret project began with the best scientific minds getting to act together. The group of scientists included Enrico Fermi, Neils Bohr, Hans Bethe, Arthur Compton, Von Neumann and many others. President Roosevelt had earmarked $ 2 billion for the project. The work on chain reaction was carried out at Chicago University. About 75000 miners were busy extracting uranium at Oakridge, Tennessee. Oppenheimer was to look into every aspect of this confidential project.

July 16, 1945 was set for the test day of the atom bomb. A 32 ton 100 feet steel tower was erected on Gyro Hill and the bomb placed on it. At 5.30 pm from a control room 14.5 km away in the desert, a remote control button was pressed. The project head Oppenheimer and all the scientists were present at the site. As the button was pressed, a gigantic fireball rose up to 7 miles in the sky and an ear-splitting blast was heard. It was heard 450 miles away in Amarillo. Texas. The 100 feet steel tower melted away and the sand in that area was converted into green glass. All life in a radius of 1.5 km had been totally destroyed. These things happened due to the immense energy produced by the atom bomb. The scientists were satisfied with the result. Their aim was to put an end to World was II. Keeping the larger picture of the people in mind, the test was kept a secret, as it was not advisable to publish the news at that stage.

On August 6, 1945, American aircraft dropped atom bombs on Hiroshima and later on August 9, 1945 on Nagasaki in Japan. The destruction was unimaginable, but at same time, it forced Japan to surrender immediately, putting an end to World War II. When the war ended, Oppenheimer appealed to the government to use atomic energy only for the betterment of society. In 1947, Oppenheimer was appointed director of the Institute for advanced study at Princeton. New Jersey and became Albert Einstein’s successor. On Oppenheimer’s recommendation, President Kennedy announced the $ 50000 ‘Atomic Energy Commission Award’ in 1963. The award was later renamed ‘Enrico Fermi Award’ to immortalize the great scientist. This award is given every year to a deserving scientist.

Oppenheimer died due to throat cancer on February 18, 1967. He never regretted his association with the Manhattan Project. He believed that whatever he did was to help his nation win over Hitler and the Nazis. Thereafter, he always insisted on the peaceful use of atomic energy to help make the world a better place. Today, the world remembers him as the father of the first atomic bomb, who completed this project successfully within a short span of three years.














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The first nuclear test which Oppenheimer designated Trinity

Dr. D.N. Wadia (1883 – 1969)

Dr. Darashaw Nosherwan Wadia was known as the “father of Indian Geology”. He was born on October 25, 1883, in Surat, Gujrat. He was the son of Nosherwan and Cooverbai Wadia. His family was traditionally involved in shipbuilding. Wadia completed his primary schooling in Surat. As a child, drawing interested him. His family settled in Vadodara (Baroda) when he was 12 years old. He continued his schooling there and went on to complete his graduate and post-graduate studies from vadodara College. At graduate level his subjects included biology and geology.

It was a time when geology and geological survey had not yet developed in India. In India, geological survey was established in 1851. A post-graduation degree in geology was only offered at Kolkata and Chennai Universities. Through reading, Wadia had developed an interest in geology and through self-study and introspection, he moved forward in this direction. In 1906, when he was just 23, he joined Jammu’s Mahatma Gandhi College (Prince of Wales College) as professor of geology. During Vacations, in the snow-clad Himalayas, he carried out underground research on minerals, stones and fossils. Gradually, his interest, study and research in the subject increased. He wrote a book titled Geological Science for the benefit of students. When the book was published, his fame in this field spread all over the country. In 1921, he resigned as professor of this college and joined the geological survey department of the Geological Survey of India (GSI) at the age of 38 years. At the institute too, the Himalayan region remained the centre of his research.

In 1938, at the age of 55, Wadia resigned from the GSI department and went to Sri Lanka. It was a time when the British ruled on India and Sri Lanka. The British government had appointed Dr. Wadia as the head of the Sri Lankan geological survey department. There he completed the task assigned to him and after appropriately training his colleagues, he returned to India. On his return, he joined the central government as director of land survey department and later served as director of Bureau of Mines- Minerals and Ores. After India’s independence, Wadia set about the task of promoting science. In the Atomic Energy Commission set up under the leadership of Dr. Homi Bhabha, he was made director of the department handling minerals. He was instrumental in holding the 22nd conference of the International Geological Congress in New Delhi, the first ever in India. Wadia presided over the function.

Dr. Wadia toured abroad and carried out important research work on the Central Asian desert regions. He also provided detailed information about its mineral wealth. His views about the birth of the desert regions received tremendous response from all over the world. According to him, one million years ago the Ice Age existed. At present, icy cold rivers at the North Pole and the snow-covered areas were the result of that age. In his book, ‘Geology of Nanga Parbat and Gilgit District’, he has provided detailed information about the geological survey work he carried out in this area. Besides, in his book ‘Structure of Himalayas’, he has discussed elaboratory the geological formation and internal edifice of the Himalayas. In his detailed research on the Himalayas, he studied the rocks on the 27000 feet (about 8000 metres) high Nanga Parbhat and the pebbles obtained from its snow-melted rivers and got ample know-how of the region. Thus, he was a tough and adventurous man. The geological survey he carried out in the Himalayas shows his strong determination and perseverance. Half a century later his life of learning was one that would put any youth to shame.

The entire stretch from Kashmir to Kanyakumari, Assam to Karachi and Baluchistan, including lakes and oceans was his area of study. This entire stretch of area was like an open book to him. Beyond textbooks he had gained knowledge through discovery and analysis. He was a storehouse of Knowledge. He also delivered his knowledge at various seminars. Experts have accepted Wadia’s view on the geological structure of areas like Poonch and Punjab, the rise and fall of the Himalayas from Assam to Kashmir and its range of peaks is indeed a revelation. According to him, the Hindu Kush, with its unique mountain range, has no relation to the Himalayas.

Among his many writings, the Geology of India and Burma is a reference volume that gives wonderful information. In Geological Survey Institute libraries around the world this volume occupies a revered place. This volume is taken into account to understand the geological set-up of India. Wadia was also a successful scientific authority on fossils. His important fossils discoveries include animals without bones, huge animals like elephants, besides skull pieces of stygordon Ganesa. Today the uranium enriched area in Bihar is very useful to the Atomic Energy Commission, thanks to the direction given by Wadia.

In 1957, he was elected the Fellow of the Royal Society of London. He was the first Indian geological scientist to receive this honour. He was twice elected president of the Indian Science Congress. The prestigious meghnad Saha Medal was awarded to him by National Science Academy. Kolkata’s Asiatic Society honoured him with the Bose Medal. The Indian government conferred on him the Padma Bhushan.

On june 15, 1969, this great Indian scientist died at the age of 85. On 23 October, 1984, the post and Telegraph Department of India issued a stamp in honour of Dr. D. N. Wadia. We salute this valiant son and pride of Gujrat.

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Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564)

Andreas Vesalius was an anatomist, physician, and also an author of one of the most influential books on human anatomy. He is considering as the “founder of modern human anatomy”. His important innovations were to perform postmortem dissections and to make use of illustrations in the teaching of anatomy. He is also known as Andreas Vesal and Andre Vesale.

Andreas Vesalius was born on December 31, 1514 in Brussels, then in the Holy Roman Empire to a family of physicians. He was the son of Andries van Wesele. His father enrolled him in the Brethren of the Common Life School in Brussels to learn Greek and Latin according to standards of the era. In 1528, He entered the University of Louvain taking arts, but in 1532, he decided to pursue a career in medicine at the University of Paris, where he moved in 1533. Here he studied the theories of Galen under the auspices of Jacques Dubois and Jean Ferne. It was during this time that he developed his interest in anatomy.

On graduation he was immediately offered the chair of Surgery and Anatomy at Padua. He also guest lectured at Bologna and Pisa. Previously these topics had been taught primarily from reading classic texts, mainly Galen, followed by an animal dissection by a barber-surgeon whose work was directed by the lecturer. In 1538 he published a letter on bloodletting. This popular treatment for almost any illness, but there was some debate about where to take the blood from. In 1541, Vesalius uncovered the fact that all that Galen’s research had been based upon animal anatomy rather than the human; since dissection had been banned in ancient Rome, Galen had dissected Barbary Apes instead, and argued that they would be anatomically similar to humans.

Vesalius, undeterred, went on to stir up more controversy, this time proving wrong not just Galen but also Mondino de liuzzi and even Aristotle; all three had made assumptions about the functions and structure of the heart had four chambers, the liver two lobes, and that the blood vessels originated in the heart, not the liver. After struggling for many days with the adverse winds in the Ionian Sea, He was wrecked on the island of Zakynthos. Here he soon died in such debt that, if a Benjamine factor had not paid for a funeral, his remains would have been thrown to the animals at the time of his death on October 15, 1564 he was scarcely fifty years of age.

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Amedeo Avogadro (1776 – 1856)

Amedeo Carlo Avogadro was an Italian savant. He is renowned for his contribution to molecular theory, including what is known as Avogadro’s law. He was born in Turin, Itlay on 9 August, 1776. He was the son of Count Filippo Avogadro and Anna Maria Vercellone. His father was a distinguished lawyer and civil servant.

Avogadro went to school in Turin. Coming from a family of well established lawyers, Avogadro was guided toward a legal career, and became a bachelor of jurisprudence in 1792, at the young age of just 16 years. Four years later he gained his doctorate in ecclesiastical law and began to practice. In 1801 he was appointed secretary to the prefecture of the department of Eridano. In 1820, he became professor of physics at the University of Turin. He married Felicita Mazzé and they had six children.

As we all know today, Avogadro’s number is very large, the presently accepted value being 6.0221367 X 1023 . The size of such a number is extremely difficult to understand. Cannizarro, around 1860, used Avogadro’s ideas to obtain a set of atomic weights, based upon oxygen having an atomic weight of 16. In 1865, Loschmidt used a combination of liquid density, gaseous viscosity, and the kinetic theory of gases, to establish roughly the size of molecules, and hence the number of molecules in 1 cm3 of gas.

Avogadro died on the 9th July, 1856. He was described as religious, but not a bigot.